that　progress　in　industry　to　which　her　degree　of　culture　entitles
  her；　cannot　even　maintain　her　previously　acquired　position；　and　is
  made　a　convenience　of　（like　a　colony）　by　that　very　nation　which
  centuries　ago　was　worked　upon　in　like　manner　by　the　merchants　of
  Germany；　until　at　last　the　German　states　have　resolved　to　secure
  their　home　markets　for　their　own　industry；　by　the　adoption　of　a
  united　vigorous　system　of　commercial　policy。
  The　North　American　free　states；　who；　more　than　any　other　nation
  before　them；　are　in　a　position　to　benefit　by　freedom　of　trade；　and
  influenced　even　from　the　very　cradle　of　their　independence　by　the
  doctrines　of　the　cosmopolitan　school；　are　striving　more　than　any
  other　nation　to　act　on　that　principle。　But　owing　to　wars　with　Great
  Britain；　we　find　that　nation　twice　compelled　to　manufacture　at　home
  the　goods　which　it　previously　purchased　under　free　trade　from　other
  countries；　and　twice；　after　the　conclusion　of　peace；　brought　to　the
  brink　of　ruin　by　free　competition　with　foreigners；　and　thereby
  admonished　of　the　fact　that　under　the　present　conditions　of　the
  world　every　great　nation　must　seek　the　guarantees　of　its　continued
  prosperity　and　independence；　before　all　other　things；　in　the
  independent　and　uniform　development　of　its　own　powers　and
  resources。
  Thus　history　shows　that　restrictions　are　not　so　much　the
  inventions　of　mere　speculative　minds；　as　the　natural　consequences
  of　the　diversity　of　interests；　and　of　the　strivings　of　nations
  after　independence　or　overpowering　ascendency；　and　thus　of　national
  emulation　and　wars；　and　therefore　that　they　cannot　be　dispensed
  with　until　this　conflict　of　national　interests　shall　cease；　in
  other　words　until　all　nations　can　be　united　under　one　and　the　same
  system　of　law。　Thus　the　question　as　to　whether；　and　how；　the
  various　nations　can　be　brought　into　one　united　federation；　and　how
  the　decisions　of　law　can　be　invoked　in　the　place　of　military　force
  to　determine　the　differences　which　arise　between　independent
  nations；　has　to　be　solved　concurrently　with　the　question　how
  universal　free　trade　can　be　established　in　the　place　of　separate
  national　commercial　systems。
  The　attempts　which　have　been　made　by　single　nations　to
  introduce　freedom　of　trade　in　face　of　a　nation　which　is　predominant
  in　industry；　wealth；　and　power；　no　less　than　distinguished　for　an
  exclusive　tariff　system　　as　Portugal　did　in　1703；　France　in　1786；
  North　America　in　1786　and　1816；　Russia　from　1815　till　1821；　and　as
  Germany　has　done　for　centuries　　go　to　show　us　that　in　this　way
  the　prosperity　of　individual　nations　is　sacrificed；　without　benefit
  to　mankind　in　general；　solely　for　the　enrichment　of　the　predominant
  manufacturing　and　commercial　nation。　Switzerland　（as　we　hope　to
  show　in　the　sequel）　constitutes　an　exception；　which　proves　just　as
  much　as　it　proves　little　for　or　against　one　or　the　other　system。
  Colbert　appears　to　us　not　to　have　been　the　inventor　of　that
  system　which　the　Italians　have　named　after　him；　for；　as　we　have
  seen；　it　was　fully　elaborated　by　the　English　long　before　his　time。
  Colbert　only　put　in　practice　what　France；　if　she　wished　to　fulfil
  her　destinies；　was　bound　to　carry　out　sooner　or　later。　If　Colbert
  is　to　be　blamed　at　all；　it　can　only　be　charged　against　him　that　he
  attempted　to　put　into　force　under　a　despotic　government　a　system
  which　could　subsist　only　after　a　fundamental　reform　of　the
  political　conditions。　But　against　this　reproach　to　Colbert's　memory
  it　may　very　well　be　argued　that；　had　his　system　been　continued　by
  wise　princes　and　sagacious　ministers；　it　would　in　all　probability
  have　removed　by　means　of　reforms　all　those　hindrances　which　stood
  in　the　way　of　progress　in　manufactures；　agriculture；　and　trade；　as
  well　as　of　national　freedom；　and　France　would　then　have　undergone
  no　revolution；　but　rather；　impelled　along　the　path　of　development
  by　the　reciprocating　influences　of　industry　and　freedom；　she　might
  for　the　last　century　and　a　half　have　been　successfully　competing
  with　England　in　manufactures；　in　the　promotion　of　her　internal
  trade；　in　foreign　commerce；　and　in　colonisation；　as　well　as　in　her
  fisheries；　her　navigation；　and　her　naval　power。
  Finally；　history　teaches　us　how　nations　which　have　been　endowed
  by　Nature　with　all　resources　which　are　requisite　for　the　attainment
  of　the　highest　grade　of　wealth　and　power；　may　and　must　　without
  on　that　account　forfeiting　the　end　in　view　　modify　their　systems
  according　to　the　measure　of　their　own　progress：　in　the　first　stage；
  adopting　free　trade　with　more　advanced　nations　as　a　means　of
  raising　themselves　from　a　state　of　barbarism；　and　of　making
  advances　in　agriculture；　in　the　second　stage；　promoting　the　growth
  of　manufactures；　fisheries；　navigation；　and　foreign　trade　by　means
  of　commercial　restrictions；　and　in　the　last　stage；　after　reaching
  the　highest　degree　of　wealth　and　power；　by　gradually　reverting　to
  the　principle　of　free　trade　and　of　unrestricted　competition　in　the
  home　as　well　as　in　foreign　markets；　that　so　their　agriculturists；
  manufacturers；　and　merchants　may　be　preserved　from　indolence；　and
  stimulated　to　retain　the　supremacy　which　they　have　acquired。　In　the
  first　stage；　we　see　Spain；　Portugal；　and　the　Kingdom　of　Naples；　in
  the　second；　Germany　and　the　United　States　of　North　America；　France
  apparently　stands　close　upon　the　boundary　line　of　the　last　stage；
  but　Great　Britain　alone　at　the　present　time　has　actually　reached
  it。
  End