at　the　foot　of　the　Alps；　owing　to　the　influence　of　Italy；　Greece；
  and　the　transport　trade　by　land；　on　the　Rhine；　the　Elbe；　and　the
  Danube；　by　means　of　viticulture　and　the　wine　trade；　owing　to　the
  exceptional　fertility　of　the　soil　and　the　facilities　of　water
  communication；　which　in　the　Middle　Ages　was　of　still　greater
  importance　than　even　in　our　days；　because　of　the　wretched　condition
  of　the　roads　and　the　general　state　of　insecurity。
  This　diversity　of　origin　will　explain　the　diversity
  characterising　the　several　confederations　of　German　cities；　such　as
  the　Hanseatic；　the　Rhenish；　the　Swabian；　the　Dutch；　and　the
  Helvetic。
  Though　they　continued　powerful　for　a　time　owing　to　the　spirit
  of　youthful　freedom　which　pervaded　them；　yet　these　leagues　lacked
  the　internal　guarantee　of　stability；　the　principle　of　unity；　the
  cement。　Separated　from　each　other　by　the　estates　of　the　nobility；
  by　the　serfdom　of　the　population　of　the　country；　their　union　was
  doomed　sooner　or　later　to　break　down；　owing　to　the　gradual　increase
  and　enrichment　of　the　agricultural　population；　among　whom；　through
  the　power　of　the　princes；　the　principle　of　unity　was　maintained。
  The　cities；　inasmuch　as　they　tended　to　promote　the　prosperity　of
  agriculture；　by　so　doing　necessarily　were　working　at　their　own
  effacement；　unless　they　contrived　to　incorporate　the　agricultural
  classes　or　the　nobility　as　members　of　their　unions。　For　the
  accomplishment　of　that　object；　however；　they　lacked　the　requisite
  higher　political　instincts　and　knowledge。　Their　political　vision
  seldom　extended　beyond　their　own　city　walls。
  Two　only　of　these　confederations；　Switzerland　and　the　Seven
  United　Provinces；　actually　carried　out　this　incorporation；　and　that
  not　as　the　result　of　reflection；　but　because　they　were　compelled　to
  it；　and　favoured　by　circumstances；　and　for　that　reason　those
  confederations　still　exist。　The　Swiss　Confederation　is　nothing　but
  a　conglomerate　of　German　imperial　cities；　established　and　cemented
  together　by　the　free　populations　occupying　the　intervening　tracts
  of　country。
  The　remaining　leagues　of　German　cities　were　ruined　owing　to
  their　contempt　for　the　rural　population；　and　from　their　absurd
  burgher　arrogance；　which　delighted　in　keeping　that　population　in
  subjection；　rather　than　in　raising　them　to　their　own　level。
  These　cities　could　only　have　attained　unity　by　means　of　an
  hereditary　royal　authority。　But　this　authority　in　Germany　lay　in
  the　hands　of　the　princes；　who；　in　order　to　avert　restraints　upon
  their　own　arbitrary　rule；　and　to　keep　both　the　cities　and　the　minor
  nobles　in　subjection；　were　interested　in　resisting　the
  establishment　of　an　hereditary　empire。
  Hence　the　persevering　adherence　to　the　idea　of　the　Imperial
  Roman　Empire　amongst　German　kings。　Only　at　the　head　of　armies　were
  the　emperors　rulers；　only　when　they　went　to　war　were　they　able　to
  bring　together　princes　and　cities　under　their　banner。　Hence　their
  protection　of　civic　liberty　in　Germany；　and　their　hostility　to　it
  and　persecution　of　it　in　Italy。
  The　expeditions　to　Rome　not　only　weakened　more　and　more　the
  kingly　power　in　Germany；　they　weakened　those　very　dynasties　through
  which；　within　the　Empire；　in　the　heart　of　the　nation；　a
  consolidated　power　might　have　grown　up。　But　with　the　extinction　of
  the　House　of　Hohenstaufen　the　nucleus　of　consolidated　power　was
  broken　up　into　a　thousand　fragments。
  The　sense　of　the　impossibility　of　consolidating　the　heart　of
  the　nation　impelled　the　House　of　Hapsburg；　originally　so　weak　and
  poor；　to　utilise　the　nation's　vigour　in　founding　a　consolidated
  hereditary　monarchy　on　the　south…eastern　frontier　of　the　German
  Empire；　by　subjugating　alien　races；　a　policy　which　in　the　northeast
  was　imitated　by　the　Margraves　of　Brandenburg。　Thus　in　the
  south…east　and　north…east　there　arose　hereditary　sovereignties
  founded　upon　the　dominion　over　alien　races；　while　in　the　two
  western　corners　of　the　land　two　republics　grew　into　existence　which
  continually　separated　themselves　more　and　more　from　the　parent
  nation；　and　within；　in　the　nation's　heart；　disintegration；
  impotence；　and　dissolution　continually　progressed。　The　misfortunes
  of　the　German　nation　were　completed　by　the　inventions　of　gunpowder
  and　of　the　art　of　printing；　the　revival　of　the　Roman　law；　the
  Reformation；　and　lastly　the　discovery　of　America　and　of　the　new
  route　to　India。
  The　intellectual；　social；　and　economic　revolution　which　we　have
  described　produced　divisions　and　disruption　between　the　constituent
  members　of　the　Empire；　disunion　between　the　princes；　disunion
  between　the　cities；　disunion　even　between　the　various　guilds　of
  individual　cities；　and　between　neighbours　of　every　rank。　The
  energies　of　the　nation　were　now　diverted　from　the　pursuit　of
  industry；　agriculture；　trade；　and　navigation；　from　the　acquisition
  of　colonies；　the　amelioration　of　internal　institutions；　in　fact
  from　every　kind　of　substantial　improvement；　the　people　contended
  about　dogmas　and　the　heritage　of　the　Church。
  At　the　same　time　came　the　decline　of　the　Hanseatic　League　and
  of　Venice；　and　with　it　the　decline　of　Germany's　wholesale　trade；
  and　of　the　power　and　liberties　of　the　German　cities　both　in　the
  north　and　in　the　south。
  Then　came　the　Thirty　Years'　War　with　its　devastations　of　all
  territories　and　cities。　Holland　and　Switzerland　seceded；　while　the
  fairest　provinces　of　the　Empire　were　conquered　by　France。　Whereas
  formerly　single　cities；　such　as　Strasburg；　N黵nberg；　Augsburg；　had
  surpassed　in　power　entire　electorates；　they　now　sank　into　utter
  impotence　in　consequence　of　the　introduction　of　standing　armies。
  If　before　this　revolution　the　cities　and　the　royal　power　had
  been　more　consolidated　　if　a　king　exclusively　belonging　to　the
  German　nation　had　obtained　a　complete　mastery　of　the　Reformation；
  and　had　carried　it　out　in　the　interests　of　the　unity；　power；　and
  freedom　of　the　nation　　how　very　differently　would　the
  agriculture；　industry；　and　trade　of　the　Germans　have　been
  developed。　By　the　side　of　considerations　such　as　these；　how
  pitiable　and　unpractical　seems　that　theory　of　political　economy
  which　would　have　us　refer　the　material　welfare　of　nations　solely　to
  the　production　of　individuals；　wholly　losing　sight　of　the　fact　that
  the　producing　power　of　all　individuals　is　to　a　great　extent
  determined　by　the　social　and　political　circumstances　of　the　nation。
  The　introduction　of　the　Roman　law　weakened　no　nation　so　much　as　the
  German。　The　unspeakable　confusion　which　it　brought　into　the　legal
  status　and　relations　of　private　individuals；　was　not　the　worst　of
  its　bad　effects。　More　mischievous　was　it　by　far；　in　that　it　created
  a　caste　of　learned　men　and　jurists　differing　from　the　people　in
  spirit　and　language；　which　treated　the　people　as　a　class　unlearned
  in　the　law；　as　minors；　which　denied　the　authority　of　all　sound
  human　understanding；　which　everywhere　set　up　secrecy　in　the　room　of
  publicity；　which；　living　in　the　most　abject　dependence　and　living
  upon　arbitrary　power；　everywhere　advocated　it　and　defended　its
  interests；　everywhere　gnawed　at　the　roots　of　liberty。　Thus　we　see
  even　to　the　beginning　of　the　eighteenth　century　in　Germany；
  barbarism　in　literature　and　language；　barbarism　in　legislation；
  State　administration　and　administration　of　justice；　barbarism　in
  agriculture；　decline　of　industry　and　of　all　trade　upon　a　large
  scale；　want　of　unity　and　of　force　in　national　cohesion；
  powerlessness　and　weakness　on　all　hands　in　dealing　with　foreign
  nations。
  One　thing　only　the　Germans　had　preserved；　that　was　their
  aboriginal　character；　their　love　of　industry；　order；　thrift；　and
  moderation；　their　perseverance　and　endurance　in　research　and　in
  business；　their　honest　striving　after　improvement；　and　a
  considerable　natural　measure　of　morality；　prudence；　and
  circumspection。
  This　character　both　the　rulers　and　the　ruled　had　in　common。
  After　the　almost　total　decay　of　nationality　and　the　restoration　of
  tranquillity；　people　began　in　some　individual　isolated　circles　to
  introduce　order；　improvement；　and　progress。　Nowhere　was　witnessed
  more　zeal　in　cherishing　education；　manners；　religion；　art；　and
  science；　nowhere　was　absolute　power　exercised　with　greater
  moderation　or　with　more　advantage　to　general　enlightenment；　order；
  and　morality；　to　the　reform　of　abuses　and　the　advancement　of　the
  common　welfare。
  The　foundation　for　the　revival