With　the　fall　of　Napoleon；　English　competition；　which　had　been
  till　then　restricted　to　a　contraband　trade；　recovered　its　footing
  on　the　continents　of　Europe　and　America。　Now　for　the　first　time　the
  English　were　heard　to　condemn　protection　and　to　eulogise　Adam
  Smith's　doctrine　of　free　trade；　a　doctrine　which　heretofore　those
  practical　islanders　considered　as　suited　only　to　an　ideal　state　of
  Utopian　perfection。　But　an　impartial；　critical　observer　might
  easily　discern　the　entire　aBsence　of　mere　sentimental　motives　of
  philanthropy　in　this　conversion；　for　only　when　increased　facilities
  for　the　exportation　of　English　goods　to　the　continents　of　Europe
  and　America　were　in　question　were　cosmopolitan　arguments　resorted
  to；　but　so　soon　as　the　question　turned　upon　the　free　importation　of
  corn；　or　whether　foreign　goods　might　be　allowed　to　compete　at　all
  with　British　manufactures　in　the　English　market；　in　that　case　quite
  different　principles　were　appealed　to。（3*）　Unhappily；　it　was　said；
  the　long　continuance　in　England　of　a　policy　contrary　to　natural
  principles　had　created　an　artificial　state　of　things；　which　could
  not　Be　interfered　with　suddenly　without　incurring　the　risk　of
  dangerous　and　mischievous　consequences。　It　was　not　to　be　attempted
  without　the　greatest　caution　and　prudence。　It　was　England's
  misfortune；　not　her　fault。　All　the　more　gratifying　ought　it　to　be
  for　the　nations　of　the　European　and　American　continents；　that　their
  happy　lot　and　condition　left　them　quite　free　to　partake　without
  delay　of　the　blessings　of　free　trade。
  In　France；　although　her　ancient　dynasty　reascended　the　throne
  under　the　protection　of　the　banner　of　England；　or　at　any　rate　by
  the　influence　of　English　gold；　the　above　arguments　did　not　obtain
  currency　for　very　long。　England's　free　trade　wrought　such　havoc
  amongst　the　manufacturing　industries　which　had　prospered　and　grown
  strong　under　the　Continental　blockade　system；　that　a　prohibitive
  r間ime　was　speedily　resorted　to；　under　the　protecting　aegis　of
  which；　according　to　Dupin's　testimony；（4*）　the　producing　power　of
  French　manufactories　was　doubled　between　the　years　1815　and　1827。
  NOTES：
  1。　'Eloge　de　Jean　Baptiste　Colbert；　par　Necker'　（1773）　（OEuvres
  Completes；　vol。　xv。）。
  2。　See　Quesnay's　paper　entitled；　'Physiocratie；　ou　du　Gouvernement
  le　plus　avantageux　au　Genre　Humain　（1768）；'　Note　5；　'sur　la　maxime
  viii；'　wherein　Quesnay　contradicts　and　condemns　Colbert　in　two
  brief　pages；　whereas　Necker　devoted　a　hundred　pages　to　the
  exposition　of　Colbert's　system　and　of　what　he　accomplished。　It　is
  hard　to　say　whether　we　are　to　wonder　most　at　the　ignorance　of
  Quesnay　on　matters　of　industry；　history；　and　finance；　or　at　the
  presumption　with　which　he　passes　judgment　upon　such　a　man　as
  Colbert　without　adducing　grounds　for　it。　Add　to　that；　that　this
  ignorant　dreamer　was　not　even　candid　enough　to　mention　the
  expulsion　of　the　Huguenots；　nay；　that　he　was　not　ashamed　to　allege；
  contrary　to　all　truth；　that　Colbert　had　restricted　the　trade　in
  corn　between　province　and　province　by　vexatious　police　ordinances。
  3。　A　highly　accomplished　American　orator；　Mr　Baldwin；　Chief　Justice
  of　the　United　States；　when　referring　to　the　Canning…Huskisson
  system　of　free　trade；　shrewdly　remarked；　that；　like　most　English
  productions；　it　had　been　manufactured　not　so　much　for　home
  consumption　as　for　exportation。
  Shall　we　laugh　most　or　weep　when　we　call　to　mind　the　rapture　of
  enthusiasm　with　which　the　Liberals　in　France　and　Germany；　more
  particularly　the　cosmopolitan　theorists　of　the　philanthropic
  school；　and　notably　Mons。　J。　B。　Say；　hailed　the　announcement　of　the
  Canning…Huskisson　system？　So　great　was　their　jubilation；　that　one
  might　have　thought　the　millennium　had　come。　But　let　us　see　what　Mr
  Canning's　own　biographer　says　about　this　minister's　views　on　the
  subject　of　free　trade。
  'Mr　Canning　was　perfectly　convinced　of　the　truth　of　the
  abstract　principle；　that　commerce　is　sure　to　flourish　most　when
  wholly　unfettered；　but　since　such　had　not　been　the　opinion　either
  of　our　ancestors　or　of　surrounding　nations；　and　since　in
  consequence　restraints　had　been　imposed　upon　all　commercial
  transactions；　a　state　of　things　had　grown　up　to　which　the　unguarded
  application　of　the　abstract　principle；　however　true　it　was　in
  theory；　might　have　been　somewhat　mischievous　in　practice。'　（The
  Political　Life　of　Mr　Canning；　by　Stapleton；　p。　3。）　In　the　year
  1828；　these　same　tactics　of　the　English　had　again　assumed　a
  prominence　so　marked　that　Mr　Hume；　the　Liberal　member　of
  Parliament；　felt　no　hesitation　in　stigmatising　them　in　the　House　as
  the　strangling　of　Continental　industries。
  4。　Forces　productives　de　la　France。
  Chapter　7
  The　Germans
  In　the　chapter　on　the　Hanseatic　League　we　saw　how；　next　in
  order　to　Italy；　Germany　had　flourished；　through　extensive　commerce；
  long　before　the　other　European　states。　We　have　now　to　continue　the
  industrial　history　of　that　nation；　after　first　taking　a　rapid
  survey　of　its　earliest　industrial　circumstances　and　their
  development。
  In　ancient　Germania；　the　greater　part　of　the　land　was　devoted
  to　pasturage　and　parks　for　game。　The　insignificant　and　primitive
  agriculture　was　abandoned　to　serfs　and　to　women。　The　sole
  occupation　of　the　freemen　was　warfare　and　the　chase；　and　that　is
  the　origin　of　all　the　German　nobility。
  The　German　nobles　firmly　adhered　to　this　system　throughout　the
  Middle　Ages；　oppressing　agriculturists　and　opposing　manufacturing
  industry；　while　quite　blind　to　the　benefits　which　must　accrued　to
  them；　as　the　lords　of　the　soil；　from　the　prosperity　of　both。
  Indeed；　so　deeply　rooted　has　the　passion　for　their　hereditary
  favourite　occupation　ever　continued　with　the　German　nobles；　that
  even　in　the　our　days；　long　after　they　have　been　enriched　by　the
  ploughshare　and　shuttle；　they　still　dream　in　legislative　the　about
  the　preservation　of　game　and　the　game　laws；　as　though　the　wolf　and
  the　sheep；　the　bear　and　the　bee；　could　dwell　in　peace　side　by　side；
  as　though　landed　property　could　be　devoted　at　one　and　the　same　time
  to　gardening；　timber　growing；　and　scientific　farming；　and　to　the
  preservation　of　wild　boars；　deer；　and　hares。
  German　husbandry　long　remained　in　a　barbarous　condition；
  notwithstanding　that　the　influence　of　towns　and　monasteries　on　the
  districts　in　their　immediate　vicinity　could　not　be　ignored。
  Towns　sprang　up　in　the　ancient　Roman　colonies；　at　the　seats　of
  the　temporal　and　ecclesiastical　princes　and　lords；　near
  monasteries；　and；　where　favoured　by　the　Emperor；　to　a　certain
  extent　within　their　domains　and　inclosures；　also　on　sites　where　the
  fisheries；　combined　with　facilities　for　land　and　water　transport；
  offered　inducements　to　them。　They　flourished　in　most　cases　only　by
  supplying　the　local　requirements；　and　by　the　foreign　transport
  trade。　An　extensive　system　of　native　industry　capable　Of　supplying
  an　export　trade　could　only　have　grown　up　by　means　of　extensive
  sheep　farming　and　extensive　cultivation　of　flax。　But　flax
  cultivation　implies　a　high　standard　of　agriculture；　while　extensive
  sheep　farming　needs　protection　against　wolves　and　robbers。　Such
  protection　could　not　be　maintained　amid　the　perpetual　feuds　of　the
  nobles　and　princes　between　themselves　and　against　the　towns。　Cattle
  pastures　served　always　as　the　principal　field　for　robbery；　while
  the　total　extermination　of　beasts　of　prey　was　out　of　the　question
  with　those　vast　tracts　of　forest　which　the　nobility　so　carefully
  preserved　for　their　indulgence　in　the　chase。　The　scanty　number　of
  cattle；　the　insecurity　of　life　and　property；　the　entire　lack　of
  capital　and　of　freedom　on　the　part　of　the　cultivators　of　the　soil；
  or　of　any　interest　in　agriculture　on　the　part　of　those　who　owned
  it；　necessarily　tended　to　keep　agriculture；　and　with　it　the
  prosperity　of　the　towns；　in　a　very　low　state。
  If　these　circumstances　are　duly　considered；　it　is　easy　to
  understand　the　reason　why　Flanders　and　Brabant　under　totally
  opposite　conditions　attained　at　so　early　a　period　to　a　high　degree
  of　liberty　and　prosperity。
  Notwithstanding　these　impediments；　the　German　cities　on　the
  Baltic　and　the　German　Ocean　flourished；　owing　to　the　fisheries；　to
  navigation；　and　the　foreign　trade　at　sea；　in　Southern　Germany　and
  at　the　foot　of　the　Alps；　owing　to　the　influence　of　Italy；　Greece；
  and　the　transport　trade　b