tools。　By　a　general　and　efficient　tariff　he　secured　the　home
  markets　for　native　industry。　By　abolishing；　or　by　limiting　as　much
  as　possible；　the　provincial　customs　collections；　by　the
  construction　of　highways　and　canals；　he　promoted　internal　traffic。
  These　measures　benefited　agriculture　even　more　than　manufacturing
  industry　because　the　number　of　consumers　was　thereby　doubled　and
  trebled；　and　the　producers　were　brought　into　easy　and　cheap
  communication　with　the　consumers。　He　further　promoted　the　interests
  of　agriculture　by　lowering　the　amounts　of　direct　imposts　levied
  upon　landed　property；　by　mitigating　the　severity　of　the　stringent
  measures　previously　adopted　in　collecting　the　revenue；　by
  equalising　the　incidence　of　taxation；　and　lastly　by　introducing
  measures　for　the　reduction　of　the　rate　of　interest。　He　prohibited
  the　exportation　of　corn　only　in　times　of　scarcity　and　high　prices。
  To　the　extension　of　the　foreign　trade　and　the　promotion　of
  fisheries　he　devoted　special　attention。　He　re…established　the　trade
  with　the　Levant；　enlarged　that　with　the　colonies；　and　opened　up　a
  trade　with　the　North。　Into　all　branches　of　the　administration　he
  introduced　the　most　stringent　economy　and　perfect　order。　At　his
  death　France　possessed　50；000　looms　engaged　in　the　manufacture　of
  woollens；　she　produced　annually　silk　manufactures　to　the　value　of
  50　millions　of　francs。　The　State　revenues　had　increased　by　28
  millions　of　francs。　The　kingdom　was　in　possession　of　flourishing
  fisheries；　of　an　extensive　mercantile　marine；　and　a　powerful
  navy。（1*）
  A　century　later；　the　economists　have　sharply　censured　Colbert；
  and　maintained　that　this　statesman　had　been　anxious　to　promote　the
  interests　of　manufactures　at　the　expense　of　agriculture：　a　reproach
  which　proves　nothing　more　than　that　these　authorities　were
  themselves　incapable　of　appreciating　the　nature　of　manufacturing
  industry。（2*）
  If；　however；　Colbert　was　in　error　in　opposing　periodical
  obstacles　to　the　exportation　of　raw　materials；　yet　by　fostering　the
  growth　and　progress　of　native　industries　he　so　greatly　increased
  the　demand　for　agricultural　produce　that　he　gave　the　agricultural
  interest　tenfold　compensation　for　any　injury　which　he　caused　to　it
  by　the　above…named　obstacles。　If；　contrary　to　the　dictates　of
  enlightened　statesmanship；　he　prescribed　new　processes　of
  manufacture；　and　compelled　the　manufacturers　by　penal　enactments　to
  adopt　them；　it　should　be　borne　in　mind　that　these　processes　were
  the　best　and　the　most　profitable　known　in　his　day；　and　that　he　had
  to　deal　with　a　people　which；　sunk　into　the　utmost　apathy　by　reason
  of　a　long　despotic　rule；　resisted　every　innovation　even　though　it
  was　an　improvement。
  The　reproach；　however；　that　France　had　lost　a　large　portion　of
  her　native　industry　through　Colbert's　protective　system；　could　be
  levelled　against　Colbert　only　by　that　school　which　utterly　ignored
  the　revocation　of　the　Edict　of　Nantes　with　its　disastrous
  consequences。　In　consequence　of　these　deplorable　measures；　in　the
  course　of　three　years　after　Colbert's　death　half　a　million　of　the
  most　industrious；　skilful；　and　thriving　inhabitants　of　France　were
  banished；　who；　consequently；　to　the　double　injury　of　France　which
  they　had　enriched；　transplanted　their　industry　and　their　capital　to
  Switzerland；　to　every　Protestant　country　in　Germany；　especially　to
  Prussia；　as　also　to　Holland　and　England。　Thus　the　intrigues　of　a
  bigoted　courtesan　ruined　in　three　years　the　able　and　gifted　work　of
  a　whole　generation；　and　cast　France　back　again　into　its　previous
  state　of　apathy；　while　England；　under　the　aegis　of　her
  Constitution；　and　invigorated　by　a　Revolution　which　called　forth
  all　the　energies　of　the　nation；　was　prosecuting　with　increasing
  ardour　and　without　intermission　the　work　commenced　by　Elizabeth　and
  her　predecessors。
  The　melancholy　condition　to　which　the　industry　and　the　finances
  of　France　had　been　reduced　by　a　long　course　of　misgovernment；　and
  the　spectacle　of　the　great　prosperity　of　England；　aroused　the
  emulation　of　French　statesmen　shortly　before　the　French　Revolution。
  Infatuated　with　the　hollow　theory　of　the　economists；　they　looked
  for　a　remedy；　in　opposition　to　Colbert's　policy；　in　the
  establishment　of　free　trade。　It　was　thought　that　the　prosperity　of
  the　country　could　be　restored　at　one　blow　if　a　better　market　were
  provided　for　French　wines　and　brandies　in　England；　at　the　cost　of
  permitting　the　importation　of　English　manufactures　upon　easy　terms
  （a　twelve　per　cent　duty）。　England；　delighted　at　the　proposal；
  willingly　granted　to　the　French　a　second　edition　of　the　Methuen
  Treaty；　in　the　shape　of　the　so…called　Eden　Treaty　of　1786；　a　copy
  which　was　soon　followed　by　results　not　less　ruinous　than　those
  produced　by　the　Portuguese　original。
  The　English；　accustomed　to　the　strong　wines　of　the　Peninsula；
  did　not　increase　their　consumption　to　the　extent　which　had　been
  expected；　whilst　the　French　perceived　with　horror　that　all　they　had
  to　offer　the　English　were　simply　fashions　and　fancy　articles；　the
  total　value　of　which　was　insignificant　：　whereas　the　English
  manufacturers；　in　all　articles　of　prime　necessity；　the　total　amount
  of　which　was　enormous；　could　greatly　surpass　the　French
  manufacturers　in　cheapness　of　prices；　as　well　as　in　quality　of
  their　goods；　and　in　granting　of　credit。　When；　after　a　brief
  competition；　the　French　manufacturers　were　brought　to　the　brink　of
  ruin；　while　French　wine…growers　had　gained　but　little；　then　the
  French　Government　sought　to　arrest　the　progress　of　this　ruin　by
  terminating　the　treaty；　but　only　acquired　the　conviction　that　it　is
  much　easier　to　ruin　flourishing　manufactories　in　a　few　years　than
  to　revive　ruined　manufactories　in　a　whole　generation。　English
  competition　had　engendered　a　taste　for　English　goods　in　France；　the
  consequence　of　which　was　an　extensive　and　long…continued　contraband
  trade　which　it　was　difficult　to　suppress。　Meanwhile　it　was　not　so
  difficult　for　the　English；　after　the　termination　of　the　treaty；　to
  accustom　their　palates　again　to　the　wines　of　the　Peninsula。
  Notwithstanding　that　the　commotions　of　the　Revolution　and　the
  incessant　wars　of　Napoleon　could　not　have　been　favourable　to　the
  prosperity　of　French　industry　notwithstanding　that　the　French　lost
  during　this　period　most　of　their　maritime　trade　and　all　their
  colonies；　yet　French　manufactories；　solely　from　their　exclusive
  possession　of　their　home　markets；　and　from　the　abrogation　of　feudal
  restrictions；　attained　during　the　Empire　to　a　higher　degree　of
  prosperity　than　they　had　ever　enjoyed　under　the　preceding　ancien
  r間ime。　The　same　effects　were　noticeable　in　Germany　and　in　all
  countries　over　which　the　Continental　blockade　extended。
  Napoleon　said　in　his　trenchant　style；　that　under　the　existing
  circumstances　of　the　world　any　State　which　adopted　the　principle　of
  free　trade　must　come　to　the　ground。　In　these　words　he　uttered　more
  political　wisdom　in　reference　to　the　commercial　policy　of　France
  than　all　contemporary　political　economists　in　all　their　writings。
  We　cannot　but　wonder　at　the　sagacity　with　which　this　great　genius；
  without　any　previous　study　of　the　systems　of　political　economy；
  comprehended　the　nature　and　importance　of　manufacturing　power。　Well
  was　it　for　him　and　for　France　that　he　had　not　studied　these
  systems。　'Formerly；'　said　Napoleon；　'there　was　but　one　description
  of　property；　the　possession　of　land；　but　a　new　property　has　now
  risen　up；　namely；　industry。'　Napoleon　saw；　and　in　this　way　clearly
  enunciated；　what　contemporary　economists　did　not　see；　or　did　not
  clearly　enunciate；　namely；　that　a　nation　which　combines　in　itself
  the　power　of　manufactures　with　that　of　agriculture　is　an
  immeasurably　more　perfect　and　more　wealthy　nation　than　a　purely
  agricultural　one。　What　Napoleon　did　to　found　and　promote　the
  industrial　education　of　France；　to　improve　the　country's　credit；　to
  introduce　and　set　going　new　inventions　and　improved　processes；　and
  to　perfect　the　means　of　internal　communication　in　France；　it　is　not
  necessary　to　dwell　upon　in　detail；　for　these　things　are　still　too
  well　remembered。　But　what；　perhaps；　does　call　for　special　notice　in
  this　connection；　is　the　biassed　and　unfair　judgment　passed　upon
  this　enlightened　and　powerful　ruler　by　contemporary　theorists。
  With　the　fall　of　Napoleon；　English　competition；　which　had　been
  till　then　restricted　to　a　contraband　trade；　recovered　its　footing