Methuen　Treaty　as　respects　England；　this　much　at　least　appears　to
  be　made　out；　that；　in　respect　to　Portugal；　they　have　in　no　way　been
  such　as　to　tempt　other　nations　to　deliver　over　their　home　markets
  for　manufactured　goods　to　English　competition；　for　the　sake　of
  facilitating　the　exportation　of　agricultural　produce。　Agriculture
  and　trade；　commerce　and　navigation；　instead　of　improving　from　the
  intercourse　with　England；　went　on　sinking　lower　and　lower　in
  Portugal。　In　vain　did　Pombal　strive　to　raise　them；　English
  competition　frustrated　all　his　efforts。　At　the　same　time　it　must
  not　be　forgotten　that　in　a　country　like　Portugal；　where　the　whole
  social　conditions　are　opposed　to　progress　in　agriculture；　industry；
  and　commerce；　commercial　policy　can　effect　but　very　little。
  Nevertheless；　the　little　which　Pombal　did　effect　proves　how　much
  can　be　done　for　the　benefit　of　industry　by　a　government　which　is
  anxious　to　promote　its　interests；　if　only　the　internal　hindrances
  which　the　social　condition　of　a　country　presents　can　first　be
  removed。
  The　same　experience　was　made　in　Spain　in　the　reigns　of　Philip
  V　and　his　two　immediate　successors。　Inadequate　as　was　the
  protection　extended　to　home　industries　under　the　Bourbons；　and
  great　as　was　the　lack　of　energy　in　fully　enforcing　the　customs
  laws；　yet　the　remarkable　animation　which　pervaded　every　branch　of
  industry　and　every　district　of　the　country　as　the　result　of
  transplanting　the　commercial　policy　of　Colbert　from　France　to　Spain
  was　unmistakable。（12*）　The　statements　of　Ustaritz　and　Ulloa（13*）　in
  regard　to　these　results　under　the　then　prevailing　circumstances　are
  astonishing。　For　at　that　time　were　found　everywhere　only　the　most
  wretched　mule…tracks；　nowhere　any　well…kept　inns；　nowhere　any
  bridges；　canals；　or　river　navigation；　every　province　was　closed
  against　the　rest　of　Spain　by　an　internal　customs　cordon；　at　every
  city　gate　a　royal　toll　was　demanded；　highway　robbery　and　mendicancy
  were　pursued　as　regular　professions；　the　contraband　trade　was　in
  the　most　flourishing　condition；　and　the　most　grinding　system　of
  taxation　existed；　these　and　such　as　these　the　above　named　writers
  adduce　as　the　causes　of　the　decay　of　industry　and　agriculture。　The
  causes　of　these　evils　　fanaticism；　the　greed　and　the　vices　of　the
  clergy；　the　privileges　of　the　nobles；　the　despotism　of　the
  Government；　the　want　of　enlightenment　and　freedom　amongst　the
  people　　Ustaritz　and　Ulloa　dare　not　denounce。
  A　worthy　counterpart　to　the　Methuen　Treaty　with　Portugal　is　the
  Assiento　Treaty　of　1713　with　Spain；　under　which　power　was　granted
  to　the　English　to　introduce　each　year　a　certain　number　of　African
  negroes　into　Spanish　America；　and　to　visit　the　harbour　of
  Portobello　with　one　ship　once　a　year；　whereby　an　opportunity　was
  afforded　them　of　smuggling　immense　quantities　of　goods　into　these
  countries。
  We　thus　find　that　in　all　treaties　of　commerce　concluded　by　the
  English；　there　is　a　tendency　to　extend　the　sale　of　their
  manufactures　throughout　all　the　countries　with　whom　they　negotiate；
  by　offering　them　apparent　advantages　in　respect　of　agricultural
  produce　and　raw　materials。　Everywhere　their　efforts　are　directed　to
  ruining　the　native　manufacturing　power　of　those　countries　by　means
  of　cheaper　goods　and　long　credits。　If　they　cannot　obtain　low
  tariffs；　then　they　devote　their　exertions　to　defrauding　the
  custom…houses；　and　to　organising　a　wholesale　system　of　contraband
  trade。　The　former　device；　as　we　have　seen；　succeeded　in　Portugal；
  the　latter　in　Spain。　The　collection　of　import　dues　upon　the　ad
  valorem　principle　has　stood　them　in　good　stead　in　this　matter；　for
  which　reason　of　late　they　have　taken　so　much　pains　to　represent　the
  principle　of　paying　duty　by　weight　　as　introduced　by　Prussia
  as　being　injudicious。
  NOTES：
  1。　Anderson；　vol。　i。　p。　127；　vol。　ii。　p。　350。
  2。　M。　G。　Simon；　Recueil　d'Observations　sur　l'Angleterre。　M閙oires
  et　Consid閞ations　sur　le　Commerce　et　les　Finances　d'Espagne。
  Ustaritz；　Th閛rie　et　Pratique　du　Commerce。
  3。　Chaptal；　De　l'Industrie　Fran鏰ise；　vol。　ii。　p。　245。
  4。　The　chief　export　trade　of　the　Portuguese　from　Central　and
  Southern　America　consisted　of　the　precious　metals。　From　1748　to
  1753；　the　exports　amounted　to　18　millions　of　piastres。　See
  Humboldt's　Essai　Politique　sur　le　Royaume　de　la　Nouvelle　Espagne；
  vol。　ii。　p。　652。　The　goods　trade　with　those　regions；　as　well　as
  with　the　West　Indies；　first　assumed　important　proportions；　by　the
  introduction　of　the　sugar；　coffee；　and　cotton　planting。
  5。　British　Merchant；　vol。　iii。　p。　69。
  6。　Ibid。　p。　71。
  7。　Ibid。　p。　76。
  8。　Anderson；　vol。　iii。　p。　67。
  9。　British　Merchant；　vol。　iii。　p。　267。
  10。　Ibid。　vol。　iii。　pp。　15；　20；　33；　38；　110；　253；　254。
  11。　Anderson　for　the　year　1703。
  12。　Macpherson；　Annals　of　Commerce　for　the　years　1771　and　1774。　The
  obstacles　thrown　in　the　way　of　the　importation　of　foreign　goods
  greatly　promoted　the　development　of　Spanish　manufactures。　Before
  that　time　Spain　had　been　obtaining　nineteen…twentieths　of　her
  supplies　of　manufactured　goods　from　England。　　Brougham；　Inquiry
  into　the　Colonial　Policy　of　the　European　Powers；　Part　I。　p。　421。
  13。　Ustaritz；　Th閛rie　du　Commerce。　Ulloa；　R閠ablissement　des
  Manufactures　d'Espagne。
  Chapter　6
  The　French
  France；　too；　inherited　many　a　remnant　of　Roman　Civilisation。　On
  the　irruption　of　the　German　Franks；　who　loved　nothing　but　the
  chase；　and　changed　many　districts　again　into　forests　and　waste
  which　had　been　long　under　cultivation；　almost　everything　was　lost
  again。　To　the　monasteries；　however；　which　subsequently　became　such
  a　great　hindrance　to　civilisation；　France；　like　all　other　European
  countries；　is　indebted　for　most　of　her　progress　in　agriculture
  during　the　Middle　Ages。　The　inmates　of　religious　houses　kept　up　no
  feuds　like　the　nobles；　nor　harassed　their　vassals　with　calls　to
  military　service；　while　their　lands　and　cattle　were　less　exposed　to
  rapine　and　extermination。　The　clergy　loved　good　living；　were　averse
  to　quarrels；　and　sought　to　gain　reputation　and　respect　by
  supporting　the　necessitous。　Hence　the　old　adage　'It　is　good　to
  dwell　under　the　crosier。'　The　Crusades；　the　institution　of　civic
  communities　and　of　guilds　by　Louis　IX　（Saint　Louis）；　and　the
  proximity　of　Italy　and　Flanders；　had　considerable　effect　at　an
  early　period　in　developing　industry　in　France。　Already　in　the
  fourteenth　century；　Normandy　and　Brittany　supplied　woollen　and
  linen　cloths　for　home　consumption　and　for　export　to　England。　At
  this　period　also　the　export　trade　in　wines　and　salt；　chiefly
  through　the　agency　of　Hanseatic　middlemen；　had　become　important。
  By　the　influence　of　Francis　I　the　silk　manufacture　was
  introduced　into　the　South　of　France。　Henry　IV　favoured　this
  industry；　as　well　as　the　manufacture　of　glass；　linen；　and　woollens；
  Richelieu　and　Mazarin　favoured　the　silk　manufactories；　the　velvet
  and　woollen　manufactures　of　Rouen　and　Sedan；　as　well　as　the
  fisheries　and　navigation。
  On　no　country　did　the　discovery　of　America　produce　more
  favourable　effects　than　upon　France。　From　Western　France　quantities
  of　corn　were　sent　to　Spain。　Many　peasants　migrated　every　year　from
  the　Pyrenean　districts　to　the　north…east　of　Spain　in　search　of
  work。　Great　quantities　of　wine　and　salt　were　exported　to　the
  Spanish　Netherlands；　while　the　silks；　the　velvets；　as　also
  especially　the　articles　of　luxury　of　French　manufacture；　were　sold
  in　considerable　quantities　in　the　Netherlands；　England；　Spain；　and
  Portugal。　Owing　to　this　cause　a　great　deal　of　Spanish　gold　and
  silver　got　into　circulation　in　France　at　an　early　period。
  But　the　palmy　days　of　French　industry　first　commenced　with
  Colbert。
  At　the　time　of　Mazarin's　death；　neither　manufacturing　industry；
  commerce；　navigation；　nor　the　fisheries　had　attained　to　importance；
  while　the　financial　condition　of　the　country　was　at　its　worst。
  Colbert　had　the　courage　to　grapple　single…handed　with　an
  undertaking　which　England　could　only　br　ing　to　a　successful　issue
  by　the　persevering　efforts　of　three　centuries；　and　at　the　cost　of
  two　revolutions。　From　all　countries　he　obtained　the　most　skilful
  workmen；　bought　up　trade　secrets；　and　procured　better　machinery　and
  tools。　By　a　general　and　efficient　tariff　he　secured　the　home
  markets　for　n