formed　a　part）　as　a　foreign　land。
  The　example　of　Holland；　like　that　of　Belgium；　of　the　Hanseatic
  cities；　and　of　the　italian　republics；　teaches　us　that　mere　private
  industry　does　not　suffice　to　maintain　the　commerce；　industry；　and
  wealth　of　entire　states　and　nations；　if　the　public　circumstances
  under　which　it　is　carried　on　are　unfavourable　to　it；　and　further；
  that　the　greater　part　of　the　productive　powers　of　individuals　are
  derived　from　the　political　constitution　of　the　government　and　from
  the　power　of　the　nation。　The　agricultural　industry　of　Belgium
  became　flourishing　again　under　Austrian　rule。　When　united　to　France
  her　manufacturing　industry　rose　again　to　its　ancient　immense
  extent。　Holland　by　herself　was　never　in　a　position　to　establish　and
  maintain　an　independent　commercial　system　of　her　own　in　competition
  with　great　nations。　But　when　by　means　of　her　union　with　Belgium
  after　the　general　peace　（in　1815）　her　internal　resources；
  population；　and　national　territory　were　increased　to　such　an　extent
  that　she　could　rank　herself　among　the　great　nationalities；　and
  became　possessed　in　herself　of　a　great　mass　and　variety　of
  productive　powers；　we　see　the　protective　system　established　also　in
  the　Netherlands；　and　under　its　influence　agriculture；　manufactures；
  and　commerce　make　a　remarkable　advance。　This　union　has　now　been
  again　dissolved　（owing　to　causes　which　lie　outside　the　scope　and
  purpose　of　our　present　work）；　and　thus　the　protective　system　in
  Holland　has　been　deprived　of　the　basis　on　which　it　rested；　while　in
  Belgium　it　is　still　maintained。
  Holland　is　now　maintained　by　her　colonies　and　by　her　transport
  trade　with　Germany。　But　the　next　great　naval　war　may　easily　deprive
  her　of　the　former；　and　the　more　the　German　Zollverein　attains　to　a
  clear　perception　of　its　interests；　and　to　the　exercise　of　its
  powers；　the　more　clearly　will　it　recognize　the　necessity　of
  including　Holland　within　the　Zollverein。
  NOTES：
  1。　The　construction　of　good　roads；　and　still　more　of　railways；
  which　has　taken　place　in　quite　recent　times；　has　materially
  modified　this　axiom。
  2。　It　has　been　recently　stated　that　the　excellence　of　the　Dutch
  herrings　is　attributable　not　only　to　the　superior　methods　above
  named；　but　also　to　the　casks　in　which　they　are　'b鯿kelled'　and
  exported　being　constructed　of　oak。
  Chapter　4
  The　English
  In　our　account　of　the　Hanseatic　League　we　have　shown　how　in
  England　agriculture　and　sheep　farming　have　been　promoted　by　foreign
  trade；　how　at　a　subsequent　period；　through　the　immigration　of
  foreign　artificers；　fleeing　from　persecution　in　their　native　land；
  and　also　owing　to　the　fostering　measures　adopted　by　the　British
  Government；　the　English　woollen　manufacturing　industry　had
  gradually　attained　to　a　flourishing　condition；　and　how；　as　a　direct
  consequence　of　that　progress　in　manufacturing　industry；　as　well　as
  of　the　wise　and　energetic　measures　adopted　by　Queen　Elizabeth；　all
  the　foreign　trade　which　formerly　had　been　monopolised　by　foreigners
  had　been　successfully　diverted　into　the　hands　of　the　merchants　at
  home。
  before　we　continue　our　exposition　of　the　development　of　English
  national　economy　from　the　point　where　we　left　off　in　Chapter　2；　we
  venture　here　to　make　a　few　remarks　as　to　the　origin　of　British
  industry。
  The　source　and　origin　of　England's　industrial　and　commercial
  greatness　must　be　traced　mainly　to　the　breeding　of　sheep　and　to　the
  woollen　manufacture。
  before　the　first　appearance　of　the　Hansards　on　British　soil　the
  agriculture　of　England　was　unskilful　and　her　sheep　farming　of
  little　importance。　There　was　a　scarcity　of　winter　fodder　for　the
  cattle；　consequently　a　large　proportion　had　to　be　slaughtered　in
  autumn；　and　hence　both　stock　and　manure　were　alike　deficient。　Just
  as　in　all　uncultivated　territories　　as　formerly　in　Germany；　and
  in　the　uncleared　districts；　of　America　up　to　the　present　time
  hog　breeding　furnished　the　principal　supply　of　meat；　and　that　for
  obvious　reasons。　The　pigs　needed　little　care　　foraged　for
  themselves；　and　found　a　plentiful　supply　of　food　on　the　waste　lands
  and　in　the　forests；　and　by　keeping　only　a　moderate　number　of
  breeding　sows　through　the　winter；　one　was　sure　in　the　following
  spring　of　possessing　considerable　herds。
  but　with　the　growth　of　foreign　trade　hog　breeding　diminished；
  sheep　farming　assumed　larger　proportions；　and　agriculture　and　the
  breeding　of　horned　cattle　rapidly　improved。
  Hume；　in　his　'History　of　England；'（1*）　gives　a　very　interesting
  account　of　the　condition　of　English　agriculture　at　the　beginning　of
  the　fourteenth　century：
  'In　the　year　1327　Lord　Spencer　counted　upon　63　estates　in　his
  possession；　28；000　sheep；　1；000　oxen；　1；200　cows；　560　horses；　and
  2；000　hogs：　giving　a　proportion　of　450　sheep；　35　head　of　cattle；　9
  horses；　and　22　hogs　to　each　estate。'
  From　this　statement　we　may　perceive　how　greatly；　even　in　those
  early　days；　the　number　of　sheep　in　England　exceeded　that　of　all　the
  other　domestic　animals　put　together。　The　great　advantages　derived
  by　the　English　aristocracy　from　the　business　of　sheep　farming　gave
  them　an　interest　in　industry　and　in　improved　methods　of　agriculture
  even　at　that　early　period；　when　noblemen　in　most　Continental　states
  knew　no　better　mode　of　utilising　the　greater　part　of　their
  possessions　than　by　preserving　large　herds　of　deer；　and　when　they
  knew　no　more　honourable　occupation　than　harassing　the　neighbouring
  cities　and　their　trade　by　hostilities　of　various　kinds。
  And　at　this　period；　as　has　been　the　case　in　Hungary　more
  recently；　the　flocks　so　greatly　increased　that　many　estates　could
  boast　of　the　possession　of　from　10；000　to　24；000　sheep。　Under　these
  circumstances　it　necessarily　followed　that；　under　the　protection
  afforded　by　the　measures　introduced　by　Queen　Elizabeth；　the　woollen
  manufacture；　which　had　already　progressed　very　considerably　in　the
  days　of　former　English　rulers；　should　rapidly　reach　a　very　high
  degree　of　prosperity。（2*）
  In　the　petition　of　the　Hansards　to　the　Imperial　Diet；　mentioned
  in　Chapter　II；　which　prayed　for　the　enactment　of　retaliatory
  measures；　England's　export　of　cloth　was　estimated　at　200；000
  pieces；　while　in　the　days　of　James　I　the　total　value　of　English
  cloths　exported　had　already　reached　the　prodigious　amount　of　two
  million　pounds　sterling；　while　in　the　year　1354　the　total　money
  value　of　the　wool　exported　had　amounted　only　to　277；000　l。；　and
  that　of　all　other　articles　of　export　to　no　more　than　16；400　l。　Down
  to　the　reign　of　the　last…named　monarch　the　great　bulk　of　the　cloth
  manufactured　in　England　used　to　be　exported　to　belgium　in　the　rough
  state　and　was　there　dyed　and　dressed；　but　owing　to　the　measures　of
  protection　and　encouragement　introduced　under　James　I　and　Charles
  I　the　art　of　dressing　cloth　in　England　attained　so　high　a　pitch　of
  perfection　that　thenceforward　the　importation　of　the　finer
  descriptions　of　cloth　nearly　ceased；　while　only　dyed　and　finely
  dressed　cloths　were　exported。
  In　order　fully　to　appreciate　the　importance　of　these　results　of
  the　English　commercial　policy；　it　must　be　here　observed　that；　prior
  to　the　great　development　of　the　linen；　cotton；　silk；　and　iron
  manufactures　in　recent　times；　the　manufacture　of　cloth　constituted
  by　far　the　largest　proportion　of　the　medium　of　exchange　in　the
  trade　with　all　European　nations；　particularly　with　the　northern
  kingdoms；　as　well　as　in　the　commercial　intercourse　with　the　Levant
  and　the　East　and　West　Indies。　To　what　a　great　extent　this　was　the
  case　we　may　infer　from　the　undoubted　fact　that　as　far　back　as　the
  days　of　James　I　the　export　of　woollen　manufactures　represented
  nine…tenths　of　all　the　English　exports　put　together。（3*）
  This　branch　of　manufacture　enabled　England　to　drive　the
  Hanseatic　League　out　of　the　markets　of　Russia；　Sweden；　Norway；　and
  Denmark；　and　to　acquire　for　herself　the　best　part　of　the　profits
  attaching　to　the　trade　with　the　Levant　and　the　East　and　West
  Indies。　It　was　this　industry　that　stimulated　that　of　coal　mining；
  which　again　gave　rise　to　an　extensive　coasting　trade　and　the
  fisheries；　both　which；　as　constituting　the　basis　of　naval　power；
  rendered　possible　the　passing　of　the　famous　Navigation　Laws　which
  really　laid　the　foundation　of　England's　maritime　supremacy。　It　was
  round　the　woollen　industry　of　England　that　all　other　branches　of