at　last；　when　the　whole　civilized　world　is　but　one　market；　and　when　new　customers　cannot　be　found　in　new　nations。　The　demand　of　the　universal　market　is　then　a　precise　quantity；　which　the　different　industrious　nations　dispute　with　each　other；　if　one　furnish　more；　another　must　furnish　less。　The　total　sale　can　only　be　increased　by　the　progress　of　general　opulence；　or　because　conveniences；　formerly　confined　to　the　rich；　are　brought　within　the　reach　of　the　poor。　　　　　The　invention　of　the　stocking　frame；　by　means　of　which　one　man　does　as　much　work　as　a　hundred　did　before；　was　a　benefit　for　humanity；　only　because；　at　the　same　time；　the　progress　of　civilization；　of　population；　and　of　wealth；　increased　the　number　of　consumers。　New　counties　adopted　the　customs　of　Europe；　and　this　article　of　dress；　formerly　reserved　for　the　rich；　has　now　descended　to　the　poorest　classes。　But　if；　at　the　present　day；　some　new　discovery　should　enable　us；　by　a　single　stocking…frame；　to　do　the　work　which　ten　years　ago　was　done　by　a　hundred；　this　discovery　would　be　a　national　misfortune；　for　the　number　of　consumers　can　scarcely　increase；　and　it　would　then　be　the　number　of　producers　which　would　be　diminished。　　　　　This　example　may　show　us　the　general　rule：　Whenever　a　discovery；　economizing　labour；　brings　within　the　reach　of　a　poorer　class　what　was　previously　confined　to　the　rich；　it　extends　the　market；　and　whilst　benefiting　undertakers；　and　poor　consumers；　it　does　no　harm　to　workmen。　But　when　the　discovery　cannot　increase　the　number　of　consumers；　though　it　serves　them　at　a　cheaper　rate；　either　because　they　are　already　all　furnished；　or　because　the　thing　produced　can　never　be　useful　to　them；　however　low　it　may　fall；　…　the　discovery　becomes　a　human　calamity；　because　it　is　advantageous　but　to　a　certain　manufacturer；　and　that　only　at　the　expense　of　his　brethren；　or　it　benefits　a　single　nation；　and　that　only　at　the　expense　of　others。　This　national　benefit；　if　purchased　at　the　expense　of　wretchedness　and　famine　to　foreign　artisans；　would　not　in　itself　be　much　worth　coveting；　it　is；　besides；　very　far　from　being　certain。　From　the　progress　of　communication　between　different　states；　from　the　skill　of　manufacturers；　a　discovery　in　one　country　is　imitated　in　every　other　before　the　former　has　gained　any　great　profit　from　it。　　　　　It　will　doubtless　be　said；　that　whoever　introduces　a　saving　in　any　article　of　his　consumption；　preserving　still　the　same　revenue；　will　consume　what　he　saves　from　the　fall　of　price　in　such　and　such　an　article；　by　a　new　expenditure；　for　which　he　will　put　in　requisition　a　new　labour。　But　there　never　will　be　any　proportion　between　this　new　demand　and　the　labour　suspended　on　account　of　it。　　　　　On　one　hand；　consumers　make　use　of　goods　a　little　finer；　a　little　prettier；　at　the　same　price。　The　clothes　with　which　the　poor　workman　is　dressed；　are　a　little　superior　in　quality；　are　really　worth　a　little　more　than　those　which　covered　his　father；　at　the　expense　of　the　same　part　of　his　wages。　But　himself　does　not　perceive　this　advantage。　Decency；　which　according　to　this　station；　he　is　obliged　to　consult；　leaves　him　no　choice；　he　must　dress　like　his　equals；　without　finding　more　enjoyment；　he　makes　no　saving　in　this　article；　he　cannot　apply　it　to　any　other　expense。　　　　　On　the　other　hand；　the　price　of　goods　is　not　always　established　in　direct　proportion　to　the　labour　they　require；　but　in　a　very　complicated　proportion　subsisting　between　this　annual　labour；　the　circulating　capital；　and　a　primary；　unrenewed　labour；　consumed　in　building　the　manufactory；　constructing　the　machinery　with　expensive　and　often　foreign　materials。　Hence；　even　when　a　hundred　workmen　are　dismissed；　that　the　work　may　be　done　with　one　by　means　of　machinery；the　goods　are　not　reduced　to　the　hundredth　part　of　their　price。　The　stocking…frame　economizes　work　nearly　in　this　proportion；　yet　it　scarcely　produces　stockings　ten　per　cent。　cheaper　than　those　made　with　the　needle。　Notwithstanding　the　invention　of　large　mills　for　spinning　wool；　silk；　cotton；　women　continue　to　be　employed　in　spinning　with　the　wheel；　or　even　with　the　distaff；　a　certain　proof　that　the　saving　does　not　exceed　ten　per　cent。　The　same　observation　may　be　extended　to　all　improved　manufactures：　they　have　never　diminished　the　price　of　their　produce；　except　in　arithmetical　progression；　while　they　have　suspended　workmanship　in　geometrical　progression。　　　　　Let　us　compare　this　saving　in　workmanship　with　the　saving　in　price；　according　to　the　most　simple　calculation　on　the　commonest　manufacture。　A　hundred　thousand　women；　who　knit　with　the　needle　each　a　hundred　pair　of　stockings　annually；　produce　ten　million　pairs；　which；　at　5s。　a…piece；　would　sell　at　2；500；000　l。：　the　raw　material　is　worth　a　fifth　of　this。　There　remains　2；000；000　to　distribute　among　100；000　workmen；　or　20　l。　a…head。　　　　　The　same　work　is　done　at　present　on　the　frame　by　1000　workmen；　and　comes　in　ten　per　cent。　cheaper；　at　4s。　6d。　a　pair；　or；　2；250；000　l。　In　all　the　nation　therefore　saves　250；000　l。　If　employed　solely　in　workmanship；　this　sum　would　be　sufficient　to　maintain　12；500　of　the　workers　who　have　been　dismissed。　But　this　is　not　what　happens；　the　consumer；　accustomed　to　buy　stockings　at　5s。　a　pair；　pays　still　the　same　price；　but；　by　reason　of　the　progress　of　the　art；　he　merely　wears　them　a　little　finer。　This　progress　in　his　luxury　gives　subsistence　to　a　tenth　more　stocking　manufactures；　that　is　to　a　hundred　more；　to　these　add　still　farther　a　hundred　workmen　employed　in　repairing　the　machines；　or　constructing　new　ones；　and　you　have　in　all　1200　workmen　living　on　the　sum　which　supported　100；000。　　　　　The　same　calculation　is　applicable　to　all　improved　manufactures；　for　the　manufacturer；　in　adopting　a　new　machine；　and　dismissing　his　workmen；　never　troubles　himself　with　inquiring　whether　he　shall　make　a　profit　equal　to　the　diminution　of　workmanship；　but　merely　whether　he　shall　be　enabled　to　sell　a　little　cheaper　than　his　rivals。　All　the　workmen　of　England　would　be　turned　to　the　street；　if　the　manufacturers　could　employ　steam　engines　in　their　place；　with　a　saving　of　five　per　cent。　　　　　Besides；　the　improvement　of　machinery；　and　the　economy　of　human　labour；　contribute　immediately　to　diminish　the　number　of　national　consumers；　for　all　the　ruined　workmen　were　consumers。　In　the　country。　the　introduction　of　the　large　farming　system　has　banished　from　Great　Britain　the　class　of　peasant　farmers；　who　laboured　themselves；　and　yet　enjoyed　an　honest　plenty。　The　population　has　been　considerably　diminished；　but　its　consumption　is　reduced　still　farther　than　its　number。　The　hinds　perform　all　sorts　of　field　labour；　are　limited　to　the　scantiest　necessaries；　and　give　not　nearly　so　much　encouragement　to　the　industry　of　towns　as　the　rich　peasants　gave　before。　　　　　A　similar　change　has　taken　place　in　the　population　of　towns。　Discoveries　in　the　mechanical　arts　have　always　the　remote　result　of　concentrating　industry　within　the　hands　of　a　smaller　number　of　richer　merchants。　They　enable　men　to　perform　with　an　expensive　machine；　that　is　to　say；　with　great　capital；　what　was　formerly　performed　with　a　great　labour。　They　discover　the　economy　which　exists　in　management　on　a　great　scale；　the　division　of　operation；　the　employment　common　to　a　great　number　of　men　at　once；　of　light；　fuel；　and　all　the　powers　of　nature。　Thus　small　merchants；　small　manufacturers　disappear；　and　our　great　undertaker　supplies　the　place　of　hundreds；　who；　all　together；　perhaps；　were　not　as　rich　as　he。　All　together　were；　however；　better　consumers　than　he。　His　expensive　luxury　gives　far　less　encouragement　to　industry　than　the　honest　plenty　of　a　hundred　households；　of　which　his　household　supplies　the　place。　　　　　As　even　new　demands　made　manufactures　prosper；　the　number　of　labourers；　in　spite　of　the　augmented　powers　of　labour；　increases　likewise；　and　such　as　were　dismissed　from　the　country　found　still　an　establishment　in　manufacturing　towns；　the　population　of　which　continued　to　increase。　But　now　when　at　last　the　market　of　the　universe　has　been　found　sufficiently　provided　for；　and　new　reductions　of　workmen　have　occurred；　when　hinds　have　been　dismissed　from　the　fields；　spinners　from　the　manufactories　of　cotton；　weavers　from　those　of　cloth；　when　each　day　a　new　machine　supplies　the　place　of　several　families；　whilst　no　new　demand　offers　them　an　occupation　or　a　livelihood；　distress　has　reached　its　height；　and　one　might　begin　to　regret　the　progress　of　this　civilization；　which；　by　collecting　a　greater　number　of　individuals　in　the　same　space　of　ground；　has　but　multiplied　their　wretchedness；　whilst　in　deserts　it　could　at　least　but　reach　a　small　number　of　victims。　One　might　also　regret　that　governments　have　studied　too　late；　and　neglected　too　constantly　the　precepts　of　a　science；　which；　teaching　the　origin　of　national　prosperity；　points　out　beforehand　its　danger；　and　the　causes　of　its　destruction。
  The　End