n　any　other　on　chances　of　every　kind　for　its　subsistence；　is　exactly　the　class　which　calculates　those　chances　least　in　the　formation　of　a　family。　They　are　the　people　who　marry　soonest；　produce　most　children；　and　consequently　lose　most：　but　they　do　not　lose　their　children；　till　after　being　themselves　exposed　to　a　competition　which　deprives　them　successively　of　all　the　sweets　of　life。　　　　　At　the　time　when　all　towns　were　distributed　into　bodies　of　tradesmen；　when　a　calling　could　not　be　exercised　till　the　applicant　had　been　united　to　a　corporation；　a　workman　never　married　till　after　he　had　been　passed　master。　A　reception　into　the　trade　gave　him　the　certainty　of　being　able　to　maintain　his　family；　an　excessive　competition　did　not　expose　the　great　mass　of　the　population　to　the　danger　of　dying　from　hunger。　Thus；　all　the　institutions　created　in　the　republics　of　the　middle　ages；　and　reproduced　in　Queen　Elizabeth's　statute　of　apprenticeship；　though　keenly　attacked　by　Adam　Smith；　for　establishing　a　monopoly　contrary　to　the　consumer's　interest；　may　be　defended；　not　in　regard　to　the　increase　of　riches；　but　as　forming　a　necessary　obstacle　to　the　immoderate　increase　of　population。　　　　　Yet　because　the　system　we　follow　has　made　us　experience　a　calamity；　we　ought　not　to　imagine　that　no　escape　is　to　be　found；　except　by　rushing　into　the　opposite　extreme。　It　is　not　by　the　suppression　of　corporations　alone；　that　we　have　disproportionately　increased　the　manufacturing　population。　It　is　much　more　by　the　inordinate　encouragement　which　all　governments；　at　the　same　time；　have　given　to　production　without　attending　to　consumption。　We　have　already　pointed　out　the　results　of　this　imprudent　struggle；　in　regard　to　the　increase　of　wealth。　They　have　been　still　more　disastrous　in　producing　and　supporting　with　deceitful　hopes　a　population；　which　has　afterwards　been　abandoned　to　all　the　horrors　of　want。　　　　　A　state　ought；　doubtless；　to　receive　with　gratitude　whatever　new　industry　the　wants　of　consumers　may　develop　but　it　also　ought　to　allow　the　industry　which　is　quitting　it　to　depart；　without　any　effort　to　the　contrary。　When　the　profits　of　a　manufacture　diminish；　new　workmen　do　not　engage　in　it；　former　workmen　withdraw；　and　after　some　years　of　suffering；　too　long　and　too　cruel；　by　any　mode　of　treatment；　the　level　is　again　established。　But　if　the　favours　of　government　keep　up　the　staggering　manufacture；　if；　trying　to　save　it；　government　offers　bounties　for　the　discovery　of　any　machine　which　shall　spare　manual　labour；　it　will　prolong　suffering；　and　save　the　manufacturer　only　at　the　expense　of　those　whom　that　manufacturer　should　support。　　　　　The　guardian　population　presents　the　same　species　of　suffering　in　another　rank　of　society。　War　multiplies　the　commissions　of　officers　in　the　army　and　navy；　the　complicacy　of　administration　multiplies　the　places　of　judges　and　civil　agents　of　all　kinds。　Religious　zeal　multiplies　the　places　for　pastors。　All　of　them　live　on　pensions　with　a　certain　degree　of　opulence；　none　of　them　knows；　or　is　able　to　insure　the　fund　which　affords　him　subsistence。　They　reckon　on　ushering　their　children　into　the　same　career　with　themselves；　they　bring　them　up；　multiply　their　families　in　proportion　to　their　actual　opulence；　and　blindly　repose　on　the　future。　Their　pension；　however；　finishes　with　their　life；　and　at　death　they　leave　their　children　in　a　state　of　indigence；　the　suffering　of　which　is　farther　aggravated　by　the　possession　of　a　liberal　education。　The　laws　which　obstruct　the　marriage　of　officers；　judges；　clergymen；　and　generally　of　all　such　as　live　on　pensions；　how　hard　soever　those　law　may　appear　at　their　first　establishment；　are　justifiable；　because　they　save　from　poverty　the　class　to　which　its　torments　would　be　most　piercing。　　　　　But　an　inordinate　increase　of　population　is　not　the　only　cause　of　this　national　suffering。　The　demand　for　labour　may　decrease；　and　the　population　continue　stationary。　Consumption　may　be　arrested；　revenues　dissipated；　capital　destroyed；　and　the　number　of　hands　formerly　occupied　may　no　longer　be　able　to　find　a　sufficient　employment。　The　population　immediately　follow　the　revolution　of　the　capitals　destined　to　support　it。　As　day…labourers　are　more　eager　to　receive　even　the　smallest　wage；　than　merchants　to　employ　their　money；　the　former　are　laid　under　conditions　more　and　more　hard；　as　the　demand　on　the　capital　diminishes；　and　they　conclude　by　contenting　themselves　with　so　miserable　a　remuneration；　as　is　scarcely　sufficient　to　maintain　them　alive。　No　enjoyment　is　any　longer　attached　to　the　existence　of　this　unhappy　class；　hunger　and　suffering　stifle　in　them　all　the　moral　affections。　When　every　hour　is　a　struggle　for　life；　all　passions　are　concentrated　in　selfishness；　each　forgets　the　pain　of　others　in　what　himself　suffers；　the　sentiments　of　nature　are　blunted；　a　constant；　obstinate；　uniform　labour；　debases　all　the　faculties。　One　blushes　for　the　human　species；　to　see　how　low　on　the　scale　of　degradation　it　can　descend；　how　much　beneath　the　condition　of　animals　it　can　voluntarily　submit　to　maintain　life；　and；　notwithstanding　all　the　benefits　of　social　order；　notwithstanding　the　advantages　which　man　has　gained　from　the　arts；　one　is　sometimes　tempted　to　execrate　the　division　of　labour；　and　the　invention　of　manufactures　on　beholding　to　what　extremes　of　wretchedness　they　have　reduced　beings　created　equal　with　ourselves。　　　　　The　misery　of　the　savage　hunter；　who　dies　so　frequently　of　hunger；　is　not　equal　to　that　of　millions　of　families；　whom　a　manufacturer　sometimes　dismisses；　because　at　least　there　remains　to　the　former；　all　the　energy；　and　all　the　intelligence；　which　he　has　put　to　proof　during　all　his　life。　When　he　dies　for　want　of　finding　game；　he　yields　to　a　necessity　which　nature　herself　presents；　and　to　which　he　knew；　from　the　beginning；　he　must　submit；　as　to　sickness；　or　to　old　age。　But　the　artisan；　dismissed　from　his　workshop；　with　his　wife　and　children；　has　beforehand　lost　the　strength　of　his　soul　and　his　body；　he　is　still　surrounded　with　riches；　he　still　sees　beside　him；　at　every　step；　the　food　which　he　requires；　and　if　society　refuses　him　the　labour　by　which　he　offers；　till　his　last　moment；　to　purchase　bread；　it　is　men；　not　nature；　that　he　blames。　　　　　Even　when　persons　do　not　actually　die　of　hunger；　even　when　the　aids　of　charity　are　eagerly　administered　to　all　indigent　families；　discouragement　and　suffering　produce　their　cruel　effects　on　the　poor；　the　diseases　of　the　soul　are　communicated　to　the　body；　epidemics　are　multiplied；　children　die　in　a　few　months　after　their　birth；　and　the　suppression　of　labour　causes　more　cruel　ravages　than　the　cruellest　war：　besides；　fatal　habits；　either　of　mendicity　or　idleness；　take　root　in　the　population；　another　course　is　given　to　trade；　another　direction　to　fashion；　and　even　after　death　has　cleared　the　ranks　of　workmen；　those　who　remain　are　no　longer　in　a　condition　to　support　the　competition　of　foreigners。　　　　　The　causes　of　diminution　in　the　demand　for　labour；　often　belong　to　polity；　properly　so　called；　rather　than　to　political　economy。　There　is；　perhaps；　none　more　efficacious　than　the　loss　or　diminution　of　liberty；　When　a　nation　begins　to　alienate　this　precious　possession；　each　citizen　thinks　himself　less　secure　of　his　fortune；　of　the　fruits　of　his　labour；　each　abates　something　of　the　activity　of　his　mind；　and　his　spirit　of　industry。　The　virtues　which　accompany　labour；　…　sobriety；　constancy；　economy　…　give　place　to　the　vices　of　idleness；　to　intemperance；　dissipation；　and　forgetfulness　of　the　future。　Trade；　industry；　activity；　are　regarded　with　contempt；　in　a　state　where　the　people　are　nothing；　whilst　all　distinction；　all　honours；　are　reserved　for　noble　indolence。　Favour；　intrigue；　flattery；　and　all　the　arts　of　courtiers；　which　debase　the　soul；　are　roads　to　fortune；　much　more　sure　and　rapid　than　strength　of　character；　bold　and　enterprising　activity；　or　a　spirit　of　speculation。　Intriguers　are　multiplied　daily；　they　regard　with　contempt　those　who　follow　the　only　honourable　path　to　fortune；　that　in　which　none　makes　progress　except　by　his　merit　or　his　labour。　　　　　One　cause　of　depopulation　is；　however；　presented；　which　lies　within　the　narrowest　range　of　political　economy。　The　progress　of　the　arts；　the　progress　of　industry；　and　hence　even　that　of　wealth　and　prosperity；　discover　economical　methods　of　producing　all　the　fruits　of　labour；　by　employing　a　smaller　number　of　workmen。　Animals　are　substituted　for　men　in　almost　all　the　details　of　agriculture；　and　machines　are　substituted　for　men　in　all　the　operations　of　manufactures。　So　long　as　a　nation　finds　within　its　reach　a　market　sufficiently　extensive　to　secure　for　all　its　productions　a　prompt　and　advantageous　circulation；　each　of　those　discoveries　is　an　advantage；　because；　instead　of　diminishing　the　number　of　workmen；　it　augments　the　mass　of　labour　and　its　produce。　A　nation　which　happens　to　originate　discoveries；　succeeds；　for　a　long　time；　in　extending　its　market　in　proportion　to　the　number　of　hands　set　free　by　every　new　invention。　It　immediately　employs　them　in　augmenting　the　produce；　which　the　discovery　promises　to　furnish　at　a　cheaper　rate。　But　a　period　arrives　at　last；　when　the　whole　civilized　world　is　but　one　market；　and　when　new　customers　cannot　be　found　in