astrous　for　the　other。　The　Hungarian　has　not　inspired　the　labourer　with　any　interest　in　his　own　industry。　by　sharing　the　land　and　the　days　of　the　week；　he　has　made　an　enemy　of　the　man；　who　should　have　been　his　coadjutor。　The　labour　is　performed　without　zeal　or　intelligence；　the　master's　share；　inferior　to　what　it　would　have　been　according　to　the　other　system；　is　collected　with　fear；　the　peasant's　share　is　so　reduced；　that　he　lives　in　constant　penury；　and　some　of　the　most　fertile　counties　in　the　world　have　already　been　for　ages　doomed　to　this　state　of　wretchedness　and　oppression。　　　　　But　the　legislator's　interference；　which　we　claimed　for　the　metayer；　has；　in　some　of　the　countries　cultivated　by　corvees；　actually　taken　place　in　favour　of　the　vassal；　peasant；　or　serf。　In　the　German　provinces　of　the　Austrian　monarchy；　contracts　between　the　landlord　and　peasant　are；　by　law；　made　irrevocable；　and　most　of　the　corvees　have　been　changed　into　a　fixed　and　perpetual　rent　of　money；　or　of　fruits　in　a　raw　state。　By　this　means；　the　peasant　has　acquired　a　true　property　in　his　house　and　land：　only；　it　continues　to　be　charged　with　rents；　and　some　feudal　services。　Still　farther　to　protect　the　peasantry　from　being　afterwards　oppressed　or　gradually　expelled　from　their　properties；　by　the　opulent　lords　living　among　them；　the　law　does　not　allow　any　noble　to　buy　a　vassal's　land；　or；　if　he　does　buy　any；　he　is　obliged　to　sell　it；　on　the　same　conditions；　to　some　other　family　of　peasants；　so　that　the　property　of　the　nobles　can　never　increase；　or　the　agricultural　population　diminish。　　　　　These　regulations　of　the　Austrian　government　in　behalf　of　an　order；　which；　if　left　to　itself；　must　needs　be　oppressed；　are　almost　sufficient　to　redeem　the　errors　of　its　general　system；　by　this　increase　of　happiness　to　the　subject；　and　of　stability　to　the　system　itself。　In　a　country　deprived　of　liberty；　where　the　finances　have　at　all　times　been　wretchedly　administered；　where　wars　are　eternal　…　and　still　disastrous；　obstinacy　there　being　always　joined　with　incapacity；　the　great　mass　of　the　population；　composed　almost　wholly　of　peasant…proprietors　living　in　easy　circumstances；　have　been　rendered　happy；　and　this　mass　of　subjects；　feeling　their　own　happiness；　and　dreading　every　change；　have　mocked　all　the　projects　of　revolution　or　of　conquest　directed　against　their　country；　the　government　of　which　is　so　little　able　to　defend　itself。　　　　　The　system　of　cultivating　land　by　capitation；　could　be　adopted　only　among　a　people　scarcely　emerged　from　barbarism。　It　is；　in　fact；　nearly　a　modern　farm…lease；　the　parties　to　which；　in　fixing　the　rent；　pay　no　regard　to　the　greater　or　smaller　extent　of　the　ground；　to　its　comparative　fertility　or　barrenness；　to　the　improvements　which　labour　has　already　made　it　undergo。　Be　the　nature　of　those　circumstances　what　it　may；　each　proprietor　of　a　whole　Russian　province　pays　thirty　roubles　yearly　to　the　lord　of　it。　Doubtless　when　the　capitation　was　imposed；　all　those　circumstances　were　equal；　there　was　more　fertile　land　for　each　than　each　could　cultivate；　and　no　part　of　it　had　yet　been　improved　by　labour。　　　　　In　free　counties；　capitation　is　looked　upon　as　a　degrading　tax；　because　it　recalls　the　idea　of　servitude。　It　was；　indeed；　originally　always　accompanied　with　servitude　of　the　soil。　The　peasant　always　depended　on　the　good　pleasure　of　his　master；　in　executing　their　mutual　contact；　no　law　afforded　him　protection；　he　was　always　liable　to　be　ejected；　carried　off；　sold；　stript　of　all　the　property　amassed　by　his　industry；　and　thus　the　kind　of　authority　to　which　he　was　subject　incessantly　reminded　him；　that；　whatever　he　saved；　he　took　from　himself　to　give　it　to　his　master；　that　every　effort　on　his　part　was　useless；　every　invention　dangerous；　every　improvement　contrary　to　his　interest；　and　finally；　that　every　sort　of　study　but　aggravated　his　wretchedness　by　more　clearly　informing　him　of　his　condition。　　　　　Even　in　Russia；　however；　the　disinterestedness　of　some　noble　families；　who　for　several　generations　have　not　changed　the　capitation；　has　inspired　the　peasantry　with　confidence　sufficient　to　reanimate　their　industry；　to　infuse　a　taste　for　labour　and　economy；　and　sometimes　even　to　permit　their　realizing　very　large　fortunes　which；　however；　always　depend　on　the　master's　good　pleasure。　But　in　countries　where　servitude　of　the　soil　has　been　gradually　abolished；　the　capitation　has　become　a　fixed　rent；　united　most　frequently　to　personal　services；　and　sometimes　reduced　to　mere　feudal　rights；　as　the　system；　by　degrees；　varied　from　its　primitive　uniformity。　Such　was　the　tenure　by　villanage　in　France；　by　copy…hold　in　England；　the　origin　of　nearly　all　the　property　possessed　by　peasants　cultivating　their　own　heritages。　On　the　other　hand；　such　contracts　helped　to　produce　the　notion　of　farm…leases；　which；　in　the　wealthiest　countries　of　Europe；　have　succeeded　every　other　kind　of　convention　between　proprietor　and　cultivator。　　　　　By　a　farm…lease；　the　proprietor　yields　his　land；　and　nothing　more；　to　the　cultivator；　and　demands　an　invariable　rent　for　it；　whilst　the　farmer　undertakes　to　direct　and　to　execute　all　the　labour　by　himself；　to　furnish　the　cattle；　the　implements；　and　the　funds　of　agriculture；　to　sell　his　produce；　and　to　pay　his　taxes。　The　farmer　takes　upon　him　all　the　cares　and　all　the　gains　of　his　agriculture；　he　teats　it　as　a　commercial　speculation；　from　which　he　expects　a　profit　proportionate　to　the　capital　employed　in　it。　　　　　At　the　time　when　slavery　was　abolished；　the　system　of　farms　could　not　be　immediately　established：　freedmen　could　not　yet　undertake　such　important　engagements；　nor　were　they　able　to　advance　the　labour　of　a　year；　much　less　that　of　several　years；　for　putting　the　farm　in　a　proper　condition。　The　master；　on　giving　them　their　liberty；　would　have　been　obliged　to　give　them　also　an　establishment；　to　furnish　them　with　cattle；　instruments　of　tillage；　seed　and　food　for　a　year；　and　after　all　these　advances；　the　farm　would　still　have　been　a　burdensome　concern　for　the　owner；　because　by　his　contract　he　had　renounced　the　profit　of　good　years　on　condition　that　his　farmer　should　warrant　him　against　bad　years；　but　the　farmer　who　had　nothing　could　warrant　nothing；　and　the　master　would　have　given　up　his　good　crops　without　any　return。　　　　　The　first　farmers　were　mere　labourers；　they　executed　most　of　the　agricultural　operations　with　their　own　hands；　they　adjusted　their　enterprises　to　the　strength　of　their　families；　and　as　the　proprietor　reposed　little　confidence　in　their　management；　he　used　to　regulate　their　procedure　by　numerous　obligatory　clauses；　he　limited　their　leases　to　a　few　years；　and　kept　them　in　a　continual　state　of　dependence。　During　the　last　century；　farmers；　particularly　in　England；　have　risen　to　rank　and　importance。　Political　writers　and　legislators　have　uniformly　viewed　them　with　a　favourable　eye；　their　leases　have　ceased　to　be　limited　in　time　to　a　small　number　of　years；　and　hence　farmers　have　issued　from　a　more　elevated　class　of　society。　With　large　capitals；　they　have　taken　farms　of　a　larger　size；　more　extensive　knowledge；　and　a　better　education　have　enabled　them　to　teat　agriculture　as　a　science：　They　have　applied　to　it　several　important　discoveries　in　chemistry　and　natural　history；　they　have　also　in　some　degree　united　the　habits　of　the　merchant　with　those　of　the　cultivator。　The　hope　of　a　larger　profit　has　induced　them　to　make　larger　advances；　they　have　renounced　that　parsimony　which　originates　in　want；　and　stands　in　direct　opposition　to　enlightened　economy；　they　have　calculated　and　recorded　the　result　of　their　operations　with　greater　regularity；　and　this　practice　has　furnished　better　opportunities　of　profiting　by　their　own　experience。　　　　　On　the　other　hand；　farmers　from　this　time　have　ceased　to　be　labourers；　and　below　them　has　of　course　been　formed　a　class　of　men　of　toil；　who；　being　entrusted　with　supporting　the　whole　nation　by　their　labour；　are　the　real　peasants；　the　truly　essential　part　of　the　population。　The　peasantry；　strengthened　by　the　kind　of　labour　most　natural　to　man；　are　perpetually　required　for　recruiting　all　the　other　classes；　it　is　they　who　must　defend　the　country　in　a　case　of　need；　whom　it　most　concerns　us　to　attach　to　the　soil　where　they　were　born；　and　policy　itself　would　invite　every　government　to　render　their　lot　happy；　even　though　humanity　did　not　command　it。　　　　　When　the　system　of　small　farms　has　been　compared；　as　is　often　done；　with　that　of　great　farms；　it　has　not　been　sufficiently　considered　that　the　latter；　by　taking　the　direction　of　his　labour　out　of　the　peasant's　hands；　reduces　him　to　a　condition　greatly　more　unhappy　than　almost　any　other　system　of　cultivation。　In　truth；　hinds　performing　all　the　labours　of　agriculture；　under　the　command　of　a　rich　farmer；　are　not　only　more　dependent　than　metayers；　but　even　than　serfs；　who　pay　their　capitation　or　their　service。　The　latter；　whatever　vexations　they　experience；　have　at　least　a　hope；　a　property；　and　a　heritage　to　leave　their　children。　But　the　hind　has　no　participation　in　property；　nothing　to　hope　from　the　fertility　of　the　toil　or　the　propitiousness　of　the　season；　he　plants　not　for　his　children；　he　entrusts　not　to　the　ground　the　labour　of　his　young　years；　to　reap　the　fruit　of　it；　with　interest；　in　his　o