ew　experiments　and　new　observations；　some　have　expanded　it　by　developments；　which　flow　from　the　principles　laid　down　by　him；　some　have　even　here　and　there　detected　errors　in　his　work；　but　it　has　been　by　following　out　the　truths　which　he　taught　and　rectifying　them　by　light　borrowed　from　its　author。　Never　did　philosopher　effect　a　more　complete　revolution　in　any　science：　for　those　even　who　dissent　from　his　doctrine　acknowledge　his　authority；　sometimes　they　attack；　solely　because　they　do　not　understand　him；　most　commonly；　they　flatter　themselves　with　the　belief　of　still　following；　even　while　they　contradict　him。　We　shall　devote　the　rest　of　this　article　to　explain　the　science　which　he　taught　us；　though　in　an　order　different　from　his。　We　shall　arrange　it　under　the　six　following　heads：　Formation　and　Progress　of　Wealth：　Territorial　Wealth；　Commercial　Wealth；　Money；　Taxes；　and　Population。
  Chapter　2
  Formation　and　Progress　of　Wealth
  Man　brings　into　the　world　with　him　certain　wants；　which　he　must　satisfy　in　order　to　live；　certain　desires　which　lead　him　to　expect　happiness　from　particular　enjoyments；　and　a　certain　industry　or　aptitude　for　labour；　which　enables　him　to　satisfy　the　requisitions　of　both。　His　wealth　originates　in　this　industry：　his　wants　and　desires　are　its　employments。　All　that　man　values　is　created　by　his　industry；　all　that　he　creates　is　destined　to　be　consumed　in　satisfying　his　wants　and　desires。　But；　between　the　moment　of　its　production　by　labour；　and　its　consumption　by　enjoyment；　the　thing　destined　for　man's　use　may　have　an　existence　more　or　less　durable。　It　is　this　thing；　this　accumulated　and　still　unconsumed　fruit　of　labour；　which　is　called　wealth。　　　　　Wealth　may　exist　not　only　without　any　sign　of　exchange；　or　without　money；　but　even　without　any　possibility　of　exchange；　or　without　trade。　Suppose　a　man　to　be　left　on　a　desert　island；　the　undisputed　property　of　this　whole　island　is　not　wealth；　whatever　be　the　natural　fertility　of　its　soil；　the　abundance　of　the　game　straying　in　its　forests；　of　the　fish　sporting　on　its　shores；　or　the　mines　concealed　in　its　bosom。　On　the　contrary；　amid　all　these　benefits　presented　him　by　nature；　the　man　may　sink　to　the　lowest　degree　of　penury；　and　die　perhaps　of　hunger。　But；　if　his　industry　enables　him　to　catch　some　of　the　animals　that　wander　in　his　woods：　and　if；　instead　of　consuming　them　immediately；　he　reserves　them　for　his　future　wants；　if；　in　this　interval；　he　gets　them　tamed　and　multiplied；　so　that　he　can　live　on　their　milk；　or　associate　them　to　his　labour；　he　is　then　beginning　to　acquire　wealth；　because　labour　has　gained　him　the　possession　of　these　animals；　and　a　fresh　labour　has　rendered　them　domestic。　The　measure　of　his　wealth　will　not　be　the　price；　which　he　might　obtain　for　his　property　in　exchange；　because　he　is　debarred　from　all　exchange；　but　the　length　of　time　during　which　no　farther　labour　will　be　requisite　to　satisfy　his　wants；　compared　with　the　extent　of　those　wants。　　　　　By　subduing　those　animals；　the　man　has　made　them　his　property　and　wealth；　by　subduing　the　ground；　he　will；　in　like　manner；　convert　it　into　property　and　wealth。　His　island　is　destitute　of　value　so　long　as　no　labour　has　been　bestowed　on　it；　but　if；　instead　of　consuming　its　fruits　the　moment　they　come　to　his　hand；　he　reserves　them　for　future　want；　if　he　commits　them　again　to　the　earth；　again　to　be　multiplied；　if　he　tills　his　fields　to　augment　their　productive　power；　or　defends　them　by　inclosures　from　wild　beasts；　if　he　plants　them　with　trees；　the　fruit　of　which　he　does　not　look　for　till　many　years　have　elapsed；　he　is　then　creating　the　value；　not　only　of　annual　produce　raised　by　his　labour　from　the　ground；　but　also　of　the　ground　itself；　which　he　had　tamed；　as　he　tamed　the　wild　beasts；　and　rendered　fit　to　second　his　exertions。　In　that　case　he　is　rich；　and　the　more　so　the　longer　he　can　suspend　his　labours　without　suffering　new　wants。　　　　　Our　Solitary；　being　now　liberated　from　the　most　pressing　of　all　demands；　that　of　hunger；　may　devote　his　exertions　to　provide　lodging　and　clothes；　or　to　improve　those　already　provided。　He　will　build　himself　a　hut；　and　fit　it　out　with　such　furniture　as　his　unaided　labour　may　suffice　to　construct；　he　will　change　the　skin　and　fleeces　of　his　sheep　into　shoes　or　coats；　and　the　more　convenient　his　dwelling　shall　be　rendered；　the　better　his　storehouse　shall　be　filled　with　provision　for　his　future　food　and　clothing；　the　more　rich　may　he　call　himself。　　　　　The　history　of　this　man　is　the　history　of　the　human　race：　labour　alone　has　created　all　kinds　of　wealth。　However　great　the　beneficence　of　nature；　she　gives　nothing　gratuitously　to　man；　though；　when　addressed　by　him；　she　is　ready　to　lend　her　assistance　in　multiplying　his　powers　to　an　indefinite　extent。　The　history　of　wealth　is；　in　all　cases；　comprised　within　the　limits　now　specified　…　the　labour　which　creates；　the　economy　which　accumulates；　the　consumption　which　destroys。　An　article　which　has　not　been　wrought；　or　has　not　mediately　or　immediately　received　its　value　from　labour；　is　not　wealth；　however　useful；　however　necessary；　it　may　be　for　life。　An　article；　which　is　not　useful　to　man；　which　does　not　satisfy　any　of　his　desires；　and　cannot　mediately　or　immediately　be　employed　in　his　service；　is　not　more　entitled　to　the　name　of　wealth；　whatever　labour　may　have　been　bestowed　on　producing　it。　And　finally；　an　article　which　cannot　be　accumulated　or　kept　for　future　consumption　is　not　wealth；　though　created　by　labour　and　consumed　by　enjoyment。　　　　　Before　possessing　any　medium　of　exchange；　before　discovering　the　precious　metals　which　render　it　so　easy　to　us；　our　Solitary　would　ere　long　learn　to　distinguish　the　different　kinds　of　labour　in　their　relation　to　wealth。　Labour　producing　no　enjoyment　is　useless；　labour；　whose　fruits　are　naturally　incapable　of　being　stored　up　for　future　consumption；　is　unproductive；　whilst　the　only　productive　kinds　of　labour　…　the　only　kinds　producing　wealth　…　are　such　as　leave　behind　them；　in　the　estimation　even　of　our　Solitary；　a　pledge　equal　in　value　to　the　trouble　they　have　cost。　Thus　the　man；　misled　by　analogy；　may　have　imagined　that　he　could　multiply　his　olive…trees　by　planting　the　olives；　he　may　not　have　known　but　that　the　stones　would　germinate　as　in　other　such　vegetables；　till；　after　preparing　the　ground　by　a　complete　and　fatiguing　tillage；　experience　would　teach　him　that　his　toil　had　been　useless；　for　no　olive…tree　was　produced　by　it。　On　the　other　hand；　he　may　have　secured　his　dwelling　from　wolves　and　bears；　and　the　labour　would　be　useful　but　unproductive；　for　its　fruits　cannot　accumulate。　If　previously　accustomed　to　civilized　life；　he　may　have　passed　many　hours　in　playing　on　a　flute；　saved；　we　shall　suppose；　at　his　shipwreck；　the　labour　would　still　be　useful；　and　probably　regarded　as　his　own　pleasure；　but　it　would　be　as　unproductive；　and　for　a　like　reason；　as　before。　He　may　have　bestowed　on　the　care　of　his　person　and　health　much　time；　very　usefully　employed；　this　will　also　be　quite　unproductive　of　wealth。　The　Solitary　will　clearly　perceive　what　difference　there　is　between　productive　labour　and　the　labour　of　hours　in　which　he　amasses　nothing　for　the　future；　and；　without　excluding　himself　from　such　occupations；　he　will　call　them　a　loss　of　time。　　　　　Whatever　holds　of　the　isolated　man；　with　regard　to　creating　and　preserving　wealth；　is　true　also　of　society；　…　when　labour；　shared　among　numerous　individuals；　is　recompensed　by　wages；　while　its　fruits　are　distributed　by　exchange。　For　the　society；　as　well　as　for　the　Solitary；　there　may　be　a　useless　as　well　as　an　unproductive　kind　of　labour；　and；　though　both　of　them　be　paid；　they　still　preserve　their　distinct　character；　since　the　first　corresponds　not　to　the　desires　or　wants　of　the　labourer's　employer；　and　the　second　admits　no　accumulation　of　its　fruits。　The　wage　paid　to　the　workmen　in　either　case　must　not　mislead　us；　it　puts　the　payer　of　it　in　the　workman's　place。　The　part　which　we　formerly　supposed　to　be　performed　by　a　single　individual；　is　now　shared　among　two　or　more　persons；　but　the　result　is　not　altered　in　the　least。　The　day…labourer　who　plants　olives　performs　a　task　which　is　useless　to　his　employer；　though；　if　he　receives　his　hire；　it　may　be　advantageous　to　himself。　The　man　who　defends　his　master　or　society　against　bears　or　hostile　enterprises；　who　takes　charge　of　the　health　or　the　persons　of　others；　who　provides　the　enjoyment　of　music；　or　dramatic　exhibition；　or　dancing；　performs；　just　like　the　Solitary；　a　work　which　is　useful　because　it　is　agreeable；　which　is　lucrative　to　him　because　he　receives　a　hire　for　his　labour；　whilst　he　abandons　the　enjoyment　of　it　to　his　employers；　but　which　is　unproductive　notwithstanding；　because　it　cannot　be　the　object　of　saving　and　accumulation。　He　who　paid　the　wage；　no　longer　has　either　the　wage　itself　in　his　possession；　or　the　thing　for　which　he　gave　it。　　　　　Thus　labour　and　economy　…　the　true　sources　of　wealth　…　exist　for　the　Solitary　as　well　as　for　the　social　man；　and　produce　the　same　kind　of　advantage　to　both。　The　formation　of　society；　however；　and　with　it　the　introduction　of　commerce　and　exchange；　were　necessary　both　to　augment　the　productive　power　of　labour；　by　dividing　it；　and　to　afford　a　more　precise　aim　to　economy；　by　multiplying