persistence。　　About　the　chief　place　of　the　town　there　are　ruined
  houses；　but　some　invisible　hand　still　keeps　the　grass　of　the
  little　garden　within　bounds　and　has　put　out　a　bed　of　begonias。
  In　Paris　I　met　a　charming　American　writer；　the　wife　of　a　French
  artist；　the　lady　who　wrote　/My　House　on　the　Field　of
  Honour。/　　She　gave　me　a　queer　little　anecdote。　　On　account　of
  some　hospital　work　she　had　been　allowed　to　visit　Soissonsa　rare
  privilege　for　a　womanand　she　stayed　the　night　in　a　lodging。
  The　room　into　which　she　was　shown　was　like　any　other　French
  provincial　bedroom；　and　after　her　Anglo…Saxon　habit　she　walked
  straight　to　the　windows　to　open　them。
  They　looked　exactly　like　any　other　French　bedroom　windows；　with
  neat；　clean　white　lace　curtains　across　them。　　The　curtains　had
  been　put　there；　because　they　were　the　proper　things　to　put
  there。
  〃Madame；〃　said　the　hostess；　〃need　not　trouble　to　open　the　glass。
  There　is　no　more　glass　in　Soissons。〃
  But　there　were　curtains　nevertheless。　　There　was　all　the　precise
  delicacy　of　the　neatly　curtained　home　life　of　France。
  And　she　told　me　too　of　the　people　at　dinner；　and　how　as　the
  little　serving…maid　passed　about　a　proud　erection　of　cake　and
  conserve　and　cream；　came　the　familiar　〃Pheeee…woooo…
  /Bang！/〃
  〃That　must　have　been　the　Seminaire；〃　said　someone。
  As　one　speaks　of　the　weather　or　a　passing　cart。
  〃It　was　in　the　Rue　de　la　Bueire；　M'sieur；〃　the　little　maid
  asserted　with　quiet　conviction；　poising　the　trophy　of
  confectionery　for　Madame　Huard　with　an　unshaking　hand。
  So　stoutly　do　the　roots　of　French　life　hold　beneath　the
  tramplings　of　war。
  II。　THE　GRADES　OF　WAR
  1
  Soissons　and　Arras　when　I　visited　them　were　samples　of　the
  deadlock　war；　they　were　like　Bloch　come　true。　　The　living　fact
  about　war　so　far　is　that　Bloch　has　not　come　true/yet。/　　I
  think　in　the　end　he　will　come　true；　but　not　so　far　as　this　war　is
  concerned；　and　to　make　that　clear　it　is　necessary　to　trouble　the
  reader　with　a　little　disquisition　upon　waromitting　as　far　as
  humanly　possible　all　mention　of　Napoleon's　campaigns。
  The　development　of　war　has　depended　largely　upon　two　factors。
  One　of　these　is　invention。　　New　weapons　and　new　methods　have
  become　available；　and　have　modified　tactics；　strategy；　the
  relative　advantage　of　offensive　and　defensive。　　The　other　chief
  factor　in　the　evolution　of　the　war　has　been　social　organisation。
  As　Machiavelli　points　out　in　his　/Art　of　War/；　there　was
  insufficient　social　stability　in　Europe　to　keep　a　properly
  trained　and　disciplined　infantry　in　the　field　from　the　passing　of
  the　Roman　legions　to　the　appearance　of　the　Swiss　footmen。　　he
  makes　it　very　clear　that　he　considers　the　fighting　of　the　Middle
  Ages；　though　frequent　and　bloody；　to　be　a　confused；　mobbing　sort
  of　affair；　and　politically　and　technically　unsatisfactory。　　The
  knight　was　an　egotist　in　armour。　　Machiavelli　does　small　justice
  to　the　English　bowmen。　　It　is　interesting　to　note　that
  Switzerland；　that　present　island　of　peace；　was　regarded　by　him　as
  the　mother　of　modern　war。　　Swiss　aggression　was　the　curse　of　the
  Milanese。　　That　is　a　remark　by　the　way；　our　interest　here　is　to
  note　that　modern　war　emerges　upon　history　as　the　sixteenth
  century　unfolds；　as　an　affair　in　which　the　essential　factor　is
  the　drilled　and　trained　infantryman。　　The　artillery　is　developing
  as　a　means　of　breaking　the　infantry；　cavalry　for　charging　them
  when　broken；　for　pursuit　and　scouting。　　To　this　day　this　triple
  division　of　forces　dominates　soldiers'　minds。　　The　mechanical
  development　of　warfare　has　consisted　largely　in　the　development
  of　facilities　for　enabling　or　hindering　the　infantry　to　get　to
  close　quarters。　　As　that　has　been　made　easy　or　difficult　the
  offensive　or　the　defensive　has　predominated。
  A　history　of　military　method　for　the　last　few　centuries　would　be
  a　record　of　successive　alternate　steps　in　which　offensive　and
  defensive　contrivances　pull　ahead；　first　one　and　then　the　other。
  Their　relative　fluctuations　are　marked　by　the　varying　length　of
  campaigns。　　From　the　very　outset　we　have　the　ditch　and　the　wall；
  the　fortified　place　upon　a　pass　or　main　road；　as　a　check　to　the
  advance。　　Artillery　improves；　then　fortification　improves。　　The
  defensive　holds　its　own　for　a　long　period；　wars　are　mainly　siege
  wars；　and　for　a　century　before　the　advent　of　Napoleon　there　are
  no　big　successful　sweeping　invasions；　no　marches　upon　the　enemy
  capital　and　so　on。　　There　were　wars　of　reduction；　wars　of
  annoyance。　　Napoleon　developed　the　offensive　by　seizing　upon　the
  enthusiastic　infantry　of　the　republic；　improving　transport　and
  mobile　artillery；　using　road…making　as　an　aggressive　method。　　In
  spite　of　the　successful　experiment　of　Torres　Vedras　and　the
  warning　of　Plevna　the　offensive　remained　dominant　throughout　the
  nineteenth　century。
  But　three　things　were　working　quietly　towards　the　rehabilitation
  of　the　defensive；　firstly　the　increased　range；　accuracy　and
  rapidity　of　rifle　fire；　with　which　we　may　include　the　development
  of　the　machine　gun；　secondly　the　increasing　use　of　the　spade；　and
  thirdly　the　invention　of　barbed　wire。　　By　the　end　of　the　century
  these　things　had　come　so　far　into　military　theory　as　to　produce
  the　great　essay　of　Bloch；　and　to　surprise　the　British　military
  people；　who　are　not　accustomed　to　read　books　or　talk　shop；　in　the
  Boer　war。　　In　the　thinly　populated　war　region　of　South　Africa　the
  difficulties　of　forcing　entrenched　positions　were　largely　met　by
  outflanking；　the　Boers　had　only　a　limited　amount　of　barbed　wire
  and　could　be　held　down　in　their　trenches　by　shrapnel；　and　even　at
  the　beginning　of　the　present　war　there　can　be　little　doubt　that
  we　and　our　Allies　were　still　largely　unprepared　for　the　full
  possibilities　of　trench　warfare；　we　attempted　a　war　of
  manoeuvres；　war　at　about　the　grade　to　which　war　had　been
  brought　in　1898；　and　it　was　the　Germans　who　first　brought　the　war
  up　to　date　by　entrenching　upon　the　Aisne。　　We　had；　of　course；　a
  few　aeroplanes　at　that　time；　but　they　were　used　chiefly　as　a　sort
  of　accessory　cavalry　for　scouting；　our　artillery　was　light　and
  our　shell　almost　wholly　shrapnel。
  Now　the　grades　of　warfare　that　have　been　developed　since　the
  present　war　began；　may　be　regarded　as　a　series　of　elaborations
  and　counter　elaborations　of　the　problem　which　begins　as　a　line　of
  trenches　behind　wire；　containing　infantry　with　rifles　and　machine
  guns。　　Against　this　an　infantry　attack　with　bayonet；　after
  shrapnel　fails。　　This　we　will　call　Grade　A。　　To　this　the
  offensive　replies　with　improved　artillery；　and　particularly　with
  high　explosive　shell　instead　of　shrapnel。　　By　this　the　wire　is
  blown　away；　the　trench　wrecked　and　the　defender　held　down　as　the
  attack　charges　up。　　This　is　Grade　B。　　But　now　appear　the　dug…out
  elaborating　the　trench　and　the　defensive　battery　behind　the
  trench。　　The　defenders；　under　the　preliminary　bombardment；　get
  into　the　dug…outs　with　their　rifles　and　machine　guns；　and　emerge
  as　fresh　as　paint　as　the　attack　comes　up。　　Obviously　there　is
  much　scope　for　invention　and　contrivance　in　the　dug…out　as　the
  reservoir　of　counter　attacks。　　Its　possibilities　have　been　very
  ably　exploited　by　the　Germans。　　Also　the　defensive　batteries
  behind；　which　have　of　course　the　exact　range　of　the　captured
  trench；　concentrate　on　it　and　destroy　the　attack　at　the　moment　of
  victory。　　The　trench　falls　back　to　its　former　holders　under　this
  fire　and　a　counter　attack。　　Check　again　for　the　offensive。　　Even
  if　it　can　take；　it　cannot　hold　a　position　under　these　conditions。
  This　we　will　call　Grade　A2；　a　revised　and　improved　A。　　What　is
  the　retort　from　the　opposite　side？　　Obviously　to　enhance　and
  extend　the　range　of　the　preliminary　bombardment　behind　the　actual
  trench　line；　to　destroy　or　block；　if　it　can；　the　dug…outs　and
  destroy　or　silence　the　counter　offensive　artillery。　　If　it　can　do
  that；　it　can　go　on；　otherwise　Bloch　wins。
  If　fighting　went　on　only　at　ground　level　Bloch　would　win　at　this
  stage；　but　here　it　is　that　the　aeroplane　comes　in。　　From　the
  ground　it　would　be　practically　impossible　to　locate　the　enemies'
  dug…outs；　secondary　defences；　and　batteries。　　But　the　aeroplane
  takes　us　immediately　into　a　new　grade　of　warfare；　in　which　the
  location　of　the　defender's　secondary　trenches；　guns；　and　even
  machine…gun　positions　becomes　a　matter　of　extreme　precision
  provided　only　that　the　offensive　has　secured　command　of　the　air
  and　can　send　his　aeroplanes　freely　over　the　defender　lines。　　Then
  the　preliminary　bombardment　becomes　of　a　much　more　extensive
  character；　the　defender's　batteries　are　tackled　by　the
  overpowering　fire　of　guns　they　are　unable　to　locate　and　answer；
  the　secondary　dug…outs　and　strong　places　are　plastered　down；　a
  barrage　fire　shuts　off　support　from　the　doomed　trenches；　the　men
  in　these　trenches　are　held　down　by　a　concentrated　artillery　fire
  and　the　attack　goes　up　at　last　to　hunt　them　out　of　the　dug…outs
  and　collect　the　survivors。　　Until　the　attack　is　comfortably
  established　in　the　captured　trench；　the　fire　upon　the　old　counter
  attack　position　goes　on。　　This　is　the　grade；　Grade　B2；　to　which
  modern　warfare　has　attained　upon　the　Somme　front。　　The　appearance
  of　the　Tank　has　only　increased　the　offensive　advantage。