at　Spithead　for　three　months　for　convoy　to　the　West　Indies；　while　all　the　time　the　people　of　the　West　Indies；　cut　off　from　their　usual　sources　of　supply　in　America；　were　in　distress　for　food。　Seven　weeks　passed　after　d'Estaing　had　sailed　for　America；　before　the　Admiralty　knew　that　he　was　really　gone　and　sent　Admiral　Byron；　with　fourteen　ships；　to　the　aid　of　Lord　Howe。　When　d'Estaing　was　already　before　New　York　Byron　was　still　battling　with　storms　in　mid…Atlantic；　storms　so　severe　that　his　fleet　was　entirely　dispersed　and　his　flagship　was　alone　when　it　reached　Long　Island　on　the　18th　of　August。
  Meanwhile　the　French　had　a　great　chance。　On　the　11th　of　July　their　fleet；　much　stronger　than　the　British；　arrived　from　the　Delaware；　and　anchored　off　Sandy　Hook。　Admiral　Howe　knew　his　danger。　He　asked　for　volunteers　from　the　merchant　ships　and　the　sailors　offered　themselves　almost　to　a　man。　If　d'Estaing　could　beat　Howe's　inferior　fleet；　the　transports　at　New　York　would　be　at　his　mercy　and　the　British　army；　with　no　other　source　of　supply；　must　surrender。　Washington　was　near；　to　give　help　on　land。　The　end　of　the　war　seemed　not　far　away。　But　it　did　not　come。　The　French　admirals　were　often　taken　from　an　army　command；　and　d'Estaing　was　not　a　sailor　but　a　soldier。　He　feared　the　skill　of　Howe；　a　really　great　sailor；　whose　seven　available　ships　were　drawn　up　in　line　at　Sandy　Hook　so　that　their　guns　bore　on　ships　coming　in　across　the　bar。　D'Estaing　hovered　outside。　Pilots　from　New　York　told　him　that　at　high　tide　there　were　only　twenty…two　feet　of　water　on　the　bar　and　this　was　not　enough　for　his　great　ships；　one　of　which　carried　ninety…one　guns。　On　the　22d　of　July　there　was　the　highest　of　tides　with；　in　reality；　thirty　feet　of　water　on　the　bar；　and　a　wind　from　the　northeast　which　would　have　brought　d'Estaing's　ships　easily　through　the　channel　into　the　harbor。　The　British　expected　the　hottest　naval　fight　in　their　history。　At　three　in　the　afternoon　d'Estaing　moved　but　it　was　to　sail　away　out　of　sight。
  Opportunity；　though　once　spurned；　seemed　yet　to　knock　again。　The　one　other　point　held　by　the　British　was　Newport；　Rhode　Island。　Here　General　Pigot　had　five　thousand　men　and　only　perilous　communications　by　sea　with　New　York。　Washington；　keenly　desirous　to　capture　this　army；　sent　General　Greene　to　aid　General　Sullivan　in　command　at　Providence；　and　d'Estaing　arrived　off　Newport　to　give　aid。　Greene　had　fifteen　hundred　fine　soldiers；　Sullivan　had　nine　thousand　New　England　militia；　and　d'Estaing　four　thousand　French　regulars。　A　force　of　fourteen　thousand　five　hundred　men　threatened　five　thousand　British。　But　on　the　9th　of　August　Howe　suddenly　appeared　near　Newport　with　his　smaller　fleet。　D'Estaing　put　to　sea　to　fight　him；　and　a　great　naval　battle　was　imminent；　when　a　terrific　storm　blew　up　and　separated　and　almost　shattered　both　fleets。　D'Estaing　then；　in　spite　of　American　protests；　insisted　on　taking　the　French　ships　to　Boston　to　refit　and　with　them　the　French　soldiers。　Sullivan　publicly　denounced　the　French　admiral　as　having　basely　deserted　him　and　his　own　disgusted　yeomanry　left　in　hundreds　for　their　farms　to　gather　in　the　harvest。　In　September；　with　d'Estaing　safely　away；　Clinton　sailed　into　Newport　with　five　thousand　men。　Washington's　campaign　against　Rhode　Island　had　failed　completely。
  The　summer　of　1778　thus　turned　out　badly　for　Washington。　Help　from　France　which　had　aroused　such　joyous　hopes　in　America　had　achieved　little　and　the　allies　were　hurling　reproaches　at　each　other。　French　and　American　soldiers　had　riotous　fights　in　Boston　and　a　French　officer　was　killed。　The　British；　meanwhile；　were　landing　at　small　ports　on　the　coast；　which　had　been　the　haunts　of　privateers；　and　were　not　only　burning　shipping　and　stores　but　were　devastating　the　country　with　Loyalist　regiments　recruited　in　America。　The　French　told　the　Americans　that　they　were　expecting　too　much　from　the　alliance；　and　the　cautious　Washington　expressed　fear　that　help　from　outside　would　relax　effort　at　home。　Both　were　right。　By　the　autumn　the　British　had　been　reinforced　and　the　French　fleet　had　gone　to　the　West　Indies。　Truly　the　mountain　in　labor　of　the　French　alliance　seemed　to　have　brought　forth　only　a　ridiculous　mouse。　None　the　less　was　it　to　prove；　in　the　end；　the　decisive　factor　in　the　struggle。
  The　alliance　with　France　altered　the　whole　character　of　the　war；　which　ceased　now　to　be　merely　a　war　in　North　America。　France　soon　gained　an　ally　in　Europe。　Bourbon　Spain　had　no　thought　of　helping　the　colonies　in　rebellion　against　their　king；　and　she　viewed　their　ambitions　to　extend　westward　with　jealous　concern；　since　she　desired　for　herself　both　sides　of　the　Mississippi。　Spain；　however；　had　a　grievance　against　Britain；　for　Britain　would　not　yield　Gibraltar；　that　rocky　fragment　of　Spain　commanding　the　entrance　to　the　Mediterranean　which　Britain　had　wrested　from　her　as　she　had　wrested　also　Minorca　and　Florida。　So；　in　April；　1779；　Spain　joined　France　in　war　on　Great　Britain。　France　agreed　not　only　to　furnish　an　army　for　the　invasion　of　England　but　never　to　make　peace　until　Britain　had　handed　back　Gibraltar。　The　allies　planned　to　seize　and　hold　the　Isle　of　Wight。　England　has　often　been　threatened　and　yet　has　been　so　long　free　from　the　tramp　of　hostile　armies　that　we　are　tempted　to　dismiss　lightly　such　dangers。　But　in　the　summer　of　1779　the　danger　was　real。　Of　warships　carrying　fifty　guns　or　more　France　and　Spain　together　had　one　hundred　and　twenty…one；　while　Britain　had　seventy。　The　British　Channel　fleet　for　the　defense　of　home　coasts　numbered　forty　ships　of　the　line　while　France　and　Spain　together　had　sixty…six。　Nor　had　Britain　resources　in　any　other　quarter　upon　which　she　could　readily　draw。　In　the　West　Indies　she　had　twenty…one　ships　of　the　line　while　France　had　twenty…five。　The　British　could　not　find　comfort　in　any　supposed　superiority　in　the　structure　of　their　ships。　Then　and　later；　as　Nelson　admitted　when　he　was　fighting　Spain；　the　Spanish　ships　were　better　built　than　the　British。
  Lurking　in　the　background　to　haunt　British　thought　was　the　growing　American　navy。　John　Paul　was　a　Scots　sailor；　who　had　been　a　slave　trader　and　subsequently　master　of　a　West　India　merchantman；　and　on　going　to　America　had　assumed　the　name　of　Jones。　He　was　a　man　of　boundless　ambition；　vanity；　and　vigor；　and　when　he　commanded　American　privateers　he　became　a　terror　to　the　maritime　people　from　whom　he　sprang。　In　the　summer　of　1779　when　Jones；　with　a　squadron　of　four　ships；　was　haunting　the　British　coasts；　every　harbor　was　nervous。　At　Plymouth　a　boom　blocked　the　entrance；　but　other　places　had　not　even　this　defense。　Sir　Walter　Scott　has　described　how；　on　September　17；　1779；　a　squadron；　under　John　Paul　Jones；　came　within　gunshot　of　Leith；　the　port　of　Edinburgh。　The　whole　surrounding　country　was　alarmed；　since　for　two　days　the　squadron　had　been　in　sight　beating　up　the　Firth　of　Forth。　A　sudden　squall；　which　drove　Jones　back；　probably　saved　Edinburgh　from　being　plundered。　A　few　days　later　Jones　was　burning　ships　in　the　Humber　and；　on　the　23d　of　September；　he　met　off　Flamborough　Head　and；　after　a　desperate　fight；　captured　two　British　armed　ships：　the　Serapis；　a　40…gun　vessel　newly　commissioned；　and　the　Countess　of　Scarborough；　carrying　20　guns；　both　of　which　were　convoying　a　fleet。　The　fame　of　his　exploit　rang　through　Europe。　Jones　was　a　regularly　commissioned　officer　in　the　navy　of　the　United　States；　but　neutral　powers；　such　as　Holland；　had　not　yet　recognized　the　republic　and　to　them　there　was　no　American　navy。　The　British　regarded　him　as　a　traitor　and　pirate　and　might　possibly　have　hanged　him　had　he　fallen　into　their　hands。
  Terrible　days　indeed　were　these　for　distracted　England。　In　India；　France；　baulked　twenty　years　earlier；　was　working　for　her　entire　overthrow；　and　in　North　Africa；　Spain　was　using　the　Moors　to　the　same　end。　As　time　passed　the　storm　grew　more　violent。　Before　the　year　1780　ended　Holland　had　joined　England's　enemies。　Moreover；　the　northern　states　of　Europe；　angry　at　British　interference　on　the　sea　with　their　trade；　and　especially　at　her　seizure　of　ships　trying　to　enter　blockaded　ports；　took　strong　measures。　On　March　8；　1780；　Russia　issued　a　proclamation　declaring　that　neutral　ships　must　be　allowed　to　come　and　go　on　the　sea　as　they　liked。　They　might　be　searched　by　a　nation　at　war　for　arms　and　ammunition　but　for　nothing　else。　It　would　moreover　be　illegal　to　declare　a　blockade　of　a　port　and　punish　neutrals　for　violating　it；　unless　their　ships　were　actually　caught　in　an　attempt　to　enter　the　port。　Denmark　and　Sweden　joined　Russia　in　what　was　known　as　the　Armed　Neutrality　and　promised　that　they　would　retaliate　upon　any　nation　which　did　not　respect　the　conditions　laid　down。
  In　domestic　affairs　Great　Britain　was　divided。　The　Whigs　and　Tories　were　carrying　on　a　warfare　shameless　beyond　even　the　bitter　partisan　strife　of　later　days。　In　Parliament　the　Whigs　cheered　at　military　defeats　which　might　serve　to　discredit　the　Tory　Government。　The　navy　was　torn　by　faction。　When；　in　1778；　the　Whig　Admiral　Keppel　fought　an　indecisive　naval　battle　off　Ushant　and　was　afterwards　accused　by　one　of　his　officers；　Sir　Hugh　Palliser；　of　not　pressing　the　enemy　hard　enough；　party　passion　was　invoked。　The　Whigs　were　for　Keppel；　the