not　more　easy　of　fulfillment。　To　Frenchmen　zealous　for　the　ideals　of　liberty　and　seeking　military　careers　in　America　he　promised　freely　commissions　as　colonels　and　even　generals　and　was　the　chief　cause　of　that　deluge　of　European　officers　which　proved　to　Washington　so　annoying。　It　was　through　Deane's　activities　that　La　Fayette　became　a　volunteer。　Through　him　came　too　the　proposal　to　send　to　America　the　Comte　de　Broglie　who　should　be　greater　than　colonel　or　generala　generalissimo；　a　dictator。　He　was　to　brush　aside　Washington；　to　take　command　of　the　American　armies；　and　by　his　prestige　and　skill　to　secure　France　as　an　ally　and　win　victory　in　the　field。　For　such　services　Broglie　asked　only　despotic　power　while　he　served　and　for　life　a　great　pension　which　would；　he　declared；　not　be　one…hundredth　part　of　his　real　value。　That　Deane　should　have　considered　a　scheme　so　fantastic　reveals　the　measure　of　his　capacity；　and　by　the　end　of　1776　Benjamin　Franklin　was　sent　to　Paris　to　bring　his　tried　skill　to　bear　upon　the　problem　of　the　alliance。　With　Deane　and　Franklin　as　a　third　member　of　the　commission　was　associated　Arthur　Lee　who　had　vainly　sought　aid　at　the　courts　of　Spain　and　Prussia。　France　was；　however；　coy。　The　end　of　1776　saw　the　colonial　cause　at　a　very　low　ebb；　with　Washington　driven　from　New　York　and　about　to　be　driven　from　Philadelphia。　Defeat　is　not　a　good　argument　for　an　alliance。　France　was　willing　to　send　arms　to　America　and　willing　to　let　American　privateers　use　freely　her　ports。　The　ship　which　carried　Franklin　to　France　soon　busied　herself　as　a　privateer　and　reaped　for　her　crew　a　great　harvest　of　prize　money。　In　a　single　week　of　June；　1777；　this　ship　captured　a　score　of　British　merchantmen；　of　which　more　than　two　thousand　were　taken　by　Americans　during　the　war。　France　allowed　the　American　privateers　to　come　and　go　as　they　liked；　and　gave　England　smooth　words；　but　no　redress。　There　is　little　wonder　that　England　threatened　to　hang　captured　American　sailors　as　pirates。
  It　was　the　capture　of　Burgoyne　at　Saratoga　which　brought　decision　to　France。　That　was　the　victory　which　Vergennes　had　demanded　before　he　would　take　open　action。　One　British　army　had　surrendered。　Another　was　in　an　untenable　position　in　Philadelphia。　It　was　known　that　the　British　fleet　had　declined。　With　the　best　of　it　in　America；　France　was　the　more　likely　to　win　successes　in　Europe。　The　Bourbon　king　of　France　could；　too；　draw　into　the　war　the　Bourbon　king　of　Spain；　and　Spain　had　good　ships。　The　defects　of　France　and　Spain　on　the　sea　were　not　in　ships　but　in　men。　The　invasion　of　England　was　not　improbable　and　then　less　than　a　score　of　years　might　give　France　both　avenging　justice　for　her　recent　humiliation　and　safety　for　her　future。　Britain　should　lose　America；　she　should　lose　India；　she　should　pay　in　a　hundred　ways　for　her　past　triumphs；　for　the　arrogance　of　Pitt；　who　had　declared　that　he　would　so　reduce　France　that　she　should　never　again　rise。　The　future　should　belong　not　to　Britain　but　to　France。　Thus　it　was　that　fervent　patriotism　argued　after　the　defeat　of　Burgoyne。　Frederick　the　Great　told　his　ambassador　at　Paris　to　urge　upon　France　that　she　had　now　a　chance　to　strike　England　which　might　never　again　come。　France　need　not；　he　said；　fear　his　enmity；　for　he　was　as　likely　to　help　England　as　the　devil　to　help　a　Christian。　Whatever　doubts　Vergennes　may　have　entertained　about　an　open　alliance　with　America　were　now　swept　away。　The　treaty　of　friendship　with　America　was　signed　on　February　6；　1778。　On　the　13th　of　March　the　French　ambassador　in　London　told　the　British　Government；　with　studied　insolence　of　tone；　that　the　United　States　were　by　their　own　declaration　independent。　Only　a　few　weeks　earlier　the　British　ministry　had　said　that　there　was　no　prospect　of　any　foreign　intervention　to　help　the　Americans　and　now　in　the　most　galling　manner　France　told　George　III　the　one　thing　to　which　he　would　not　listen；　that　a　great　part　of　his　sovereignty　was　gone。　Each　country　withdrew　its　ambassador　and　war　quickly　followed。
  France　had　not　tried　to　make　a　hard　bargain　with　the　Americans。　She　demanded　nothing　for　herself　and　agreed　not　even　to　ask　for　the　restoration　of　Canada。　She　required　only　that　America　should　never　restore　the　King's　sovereignty　in　order　to　secure　peace。　Certain　sections　of　opinion　in　America　were　suspicious　of　France。　Was　she　not　the　old　enemy　who　had　so　long　harassed　the　frontiers　of　New　England　and　New　York？　If　George　III　was　a　despot　what　of　Louis　XVI；　who　had　not　even　an　elected　Parliament　to　restrain　him？　Washington　himself　was　distrustful　of　France　and　months　after　the　alliance　had　been　concluded　he　uttered　the　warning　that　hatred　of　England　must　not　lead　to　over…confidence　in　France。　〃No　nation；〃　he　said；　〃is　to　be　trusted　farther　than　it　is　bound　by　its　interests。〃　France；　he　thought；　must　desire　to　recover　Canada；　so　recently　lost。　He　did　not　wish　to　see　a　great　military　power　on　the　northern　frontier　of　the　United　States。　This　would　be　to　confirm　the　jeer　of　the　Loyalists　that　the　alliance　was　a　case　of　the　wooden　horse　in　Troy；　the　old　enemy　would　come　back　in　the　guise　of　a　friend　and　would　then　prove　to　be　master　and　bring　the　colonies　under　a　servitude　compared　with　which　the　British　supremacy　would　seem　indeed　mild。
  The　intervention　of　France　brought　a　cruel　embarrassment　to　the　Whig　patriot　in　England。　He　could　rejoice　and　mourn　with　American　patriots　because　he　believed　that　their　cause　was　his　own。　It　was　as　much　the　interest　of　Norfolk　as　of　Massachusetts　that　the　new　despotism　of　a　king；　who　ruled　through　a　corrupt　Parliament；　should　be　destroyed。　It　was；　however；　another　matter　when　France　took　a　share　in　the　fight。　France　fought　less　for　freedom　than　for　revenge；　and　the　Englishman　who；　like　Coke　of　Norfolk；　could　daily　toast　Washington　as　the　greatest　of　men　could　not　link　that　name　with　Louis　XVI　or　with　his　minister　Vergennes。　The　currents　of　the　past　are　too　swift　and　intricate　to　be　measured　exactly　by　the　observer　who　stands　on　the　shore　of　the　present；　but　it　is　arguable　that　the　Whigs　might　soon　have　brought　about　peace　in　England　had　it　not　been　for　the　intervention　of　France。　No　serious　person　any　longer　thought　that　taxation　could　be　enforced　upon　America　or　that　the　colonies　should　be　anything　but　free　in　regulating　their　own　affairs。　George　III　himself　said　that　he　who　declared　the　taxing　of　America　to　be　worth　what　it　cost　was　〃more　fit　for　Bedlam　than　a　seat　in　the　Senate。〃　The　one　concession　Britain　was　not　yet　prepared　to　make　was　Independence。　But　Burke　and　many　other　Whigs　were　ready　now　for　this；　though　Chatham　still　believed　it　would　be　the　ruin　of　the　British　Empire。
  Chatham；　however；　was　all　for　conciliation；　and　it　is　not　hard　to　imagine　a　group　of　wise　men　chosen　from　both　sides；　men　British　in　blood　and　outlook；　sitting　round　a　table　and　reaching　an　agreement　to　result　in　a　real　independence　for　America　and　a　real　unity　with　Great　Britain。　A　century　and　a　quarter　later　a　bitter　war　with　an　alien　race　in　South　Africa　was　followed　by　a　result　even　more　astounding。　The　surrender　of　Burgoyne　had　made　the　Prime　Minister；　Lord　North；　weary　of　his　position。　He　had　never　been　in　sympathy　with　the　King's　policy　and　since　the　bad　news　had　come　in　December　he　had　pondered　some　radical　step　which　should　end　the　war。　On　February　17；　1778；　before　the　treaty　of　friendship　between　the　United　States　and　France　had　been　made　public；　North　startled　the　House　of　Commons　by　introducing　a　bill　repealing　the　tax　on　tea；　renouncing　forever　the　right　to　tax　America；　and　nullifying　those　changes　in　the　constitution　of　Massachusetts　which　had　so　rankled　in　the　minds　of　its　people。　A　commission　with　full　powers　to　negotiate　peace　would　proceed　at　once　to　America　and　it　might　suspend　at　its　discretion；　and　thus　really　repeal；　any　act　touching　America　passed　since　1763。
  North　had　taken　a　sharp　turn。　The　Whig　clothes　had　been　stolen　by　a　Tory　Prime　Minister　and　if　he　wished　to　stay　in　office　the　Whigs　had　not　the　votes　to　turn　him　out。　His　supporters　would　accept　almost　anything　in　order　to　dish　the　Whigs。　They　swallowed　now　the　bill；　and　it　became　law；　but　at　the　same　time　came；　too；　the　war　with　France。　It　united　the　Tories；　it　divided　the　Whigs。　All　England　was　deeply　stirred。　Nearly　every　important　town　offered　to　raise　volunteer　forces　at　its　own　expense。　The　Government　soon　had　fifteen　thousand　men　recruited　at　private　cost。　Help　was　offered　so　freely　that　the　Whig；　John　Wilkes；　actually　introduced　into　Parliament　a　bill　to　prohibit　gifts　of　money　to　the　Crown　since　this　voluntary　taxation　gave　the　Crown　money　without　the　consent　of　Parliament。　The　British　patriot；　gentle　as　he　might　be　towards　America；　fumed　against　France。　This　was　no　longer　only　a　domestic　struggle　between　parties；　but　a　war　with　an　age…long　foreign　enemy。　The　populace　resented　what　they　called　the　insolence　and　the　treachery　of　France　and　the　French　ambassador　was　pelted　at　Canterbury　as　he　drove　to　the　seacoast　on　his　recall。　In　a　large　sense　the　French　alliance　was　not　an　unmixed　blessing　for　America；　since　it　confused　the　counsels　of　her　best　friends　in　England。
  In　spite　of　this　it　is　probably　true　that　from　this　time　the　mass　of　the　English　people　were　a