whom　sixteen　hundred　were　Germans　and　only　three　thousand　five　hundred　fit　for　duty；　surrendered　to　sixteen　thousand　Americans。　Burgoyne　gave　offense　to　German　officers　by　saying　in　his　report　that　he　might　have　held　out　longer　had　all　his　troops　been　British。　This　is　probably　true　but　the　British　met　with　only　a　just　Nemesis　for　using　soldiers　who　had　no　call　of　duty　to　serve。
  The　army　set　out　on　its　long　march　of　two　hundred　miles　to　Boston。　The　late　autumn　weather　was　cold；　the　army　was　badly　clothed　and　fed；　and　the　discomfort　of　the　weary　route　was　increased　by　the　bitter　antagonism　of　the　inhabitants。　They　respected　the　regular　British　soldier　but　at　the　Germans　they　shouted　insults　and　the　Loyalists　they　despised　as　traitors。　The　camp　at　the　journey's　end　was　on　the　ground　at　Cambridge　where　two　years　earlier　Washington　had　trained　his　first　army。　Every　day　Burgoyne　expected　to　embark。　There　was　delay　and；　at　last；　he　knew　the　reason。　Congress　repudiated　the　terms　granted　by　Gates。　A　tangled　dispute　followed。　Washington　probably　had　no　sympathy　with　the　quibbling　of　Congress。　But　he　had　no　desire　to　see　this　army　return　to　Europe　and　release　there　an　army　to　serve　in　America。　Burgoyne's　force　was　never　sent　to　England。　For　nearly　a　year　it　lay　at　Boston。　Then　it　was　marched　to　Virginia。　The　men　suffered　great　hardships　and　the　numbers　fell　by　desertion　and　escape。　When　peace　came　in　1783　there　was　no　army　to　take　back　to　England；　Burgoyne's　soldiers　had　been　merged　into　the　American　people。　It　may　well　be；　indeed；　that　descendants　of　his　beaten　men　have　played　an　important　part　in　building　up　the　United　States。　The　irony　of　history　is　unconquerable。
  CHAPTER　VII。　WASHINGTON　AND　HIS　COMRADES　AT　VALLEY　FORGE
  Washington　had　met　defeat　in　every　considerable　battle　at　which　he　was　personally　present。　His　first　appearance　in　military　history；　in　the　Ohio　campaign　against　the　French；　twenty…two　years　before　the　Revolution；　was　marked　by　a　defeat；　the　surrender　of　Fort　Necessity。　Again　in　the　next　year；　when　he　fought　to　relieve　the　disaster　to　Braddock's　army；　defeat　was　his　portion。　Defeat　had　pursued　him　in　the　battles　of　the　Revolution　before　New　York；　at　the　Brandywine；　at　Germantown。　The　campaign　against　Canada；　which　he　himself　planned；　had　failed。　He　had　lost　New　York　and　Philadelphia。　But；　like　William　III　of　England；　who　in　his　long　struggle　with　France　hardly　won　a　battle　and　yet　forced　Louis　XIV　to　accept　his　terms　of　peace；　Washington；　by　suddenness　in　reprisal；　by　skill　in　resource　when　his　plans　seemed　to　have　been　shattered；　grew　on　the　hard　rock　of　defeat　the　flower　of　victory。
  There　was　never　a　time　when　Washington　was　not　trusted　by　men　of　real　military　insight　or　by　the　masses　of　the　people。　But　a　general　who　does　not　win　victories　in　the　field　is　open　to　attack。　By　the　winter　of　1777　when　Washington；　with　his　army　reduced　and　needy；　was　at　Valley　Forge　keeping　watch　on　Howe　in　Philadelphia；　John　Adams　and　others　were　talking　of　the　sin　of　idolatry　in　the　worship　of　Washington；　of　its　flavor　of　the　accursed　spirit　of　monarchy；　and　of　the　punishment　which　〃the　God　of　Heaven　and　Earth〃　must　inflict　for　such　perversity。　Adams　was　all　against　a　Fabian　policy　and　wanted　to　settle　issues　forever　by　a　short　and　strenuous　war。　The　idol；　it　was　being　whispered；　proved　after　all　to　have　feet　of　clay。　One　general；　and　only　one；　had　to　his　credit　a　really　great　victoryGates；　to　whom　Burgoyne　had　surrendered　at　Saratoga；　and　there　was　a　movement　to　replace　Washington　by　this　laureled　victor。
  General　Conway；　an　Irish　soldier　of　fortune；　was　one　of　the　most　troublesome　in　this　plot。　He　had　served　in　the　campaign　about　Philadelphia　but　had　been　blocked　in　his　extravagant　demands　for　promotion；　so　he　turned　for　redress　to　Gates；　the　star　in　the　north。　A　malignant　campaign　followed　in　detraction　of　Washington。　He　had；　it　was　said；　worn　out　his　men　by　useless　marches；　with　an　army　three　times　as　numerous　as　that　of　Howe；　he　had　gained　no　victory；　there　was　high　fighting　quality　in　the　American　army　if　properly　led；　but　Washington　despised　the　militia；　a　Gates　or　a　Lee　or　a　Conway　would　save　the　cause　as　Washington　could　not；　and　so　on。　〃Heaven　has　determined　to　save　your　country　or　a　weak　general　and　bad　counsellors　would　have　ruined　it〃；　so　wrote　Conway　to　Gates　and　Gates　allowed　the　letter　to　be　seen。　The　words　were　reported　to　Washington；　who　at　once；　in　high　dudgeon；　called　Conway　to　account。　An　explosion　followed。　Gates　both　denied　that　he　had　received　a　letter　with　the　passage　in　question；　and；　at　the　same　time；　charged　that　there　had　been　tampering　with　his　private　correspondence。　He　could　not　have　it　both　ways。　Conway　was　merely　impudent　in　reply　to　Washington；　but　Gates　laid　the　whole　matter　before　Congress。　Washington　wrote　to　Gates；　in　reply　to　his　denials；　ironical　references　to　〃rich　treasures　of　knowledge　and　experience〃　〃guarded　with　penurious　reserve〃　by　Conway　from　his　leaders　but　revealed　to　Gates。　There　was　no　irony　in　Washington's　reference　to　malignant　detraction　and　mean　intrigue。　At　the　same　time　he　said　to　Gates：　〃My　temper　leads　me　to　peace　and　harmony　with　all　men；〃　and　he　deplored　the　internal　strife　which　injured　the　great　cause。　Conway　soon　left　America。　Gates　lived　to　command　another　American　army　and　to　end　his　career　by　a　crowning　disaster。
  Washington　had　now　been　for　more　than　two　years　in　the　chief　command　and　knew　his　problems。　It　was　a　British　tradition　that　standing　armies　were　a　menace　to　liberty；　and　the　tradition　had　gained　strength　in　crossing　the　sea。　Washington　would　have　wished　a　national　army　recruited　by　Congress　alone　and　bound　to　serve　for　the　duration　of　the　war。　There　was　much　talk　at　the　time　of　a　〃new　model　army〃　similar　in　type　to　the　wonderful　creation　of　Oliver　Cromwell。　The　Thirteen　Colonies　became；　however；　thirteen　nations。　Each　reserved　the　right　to　raise　its　own　levies　in　its　own　way。　To　induce　men　to　enlist　Congress　was　twice　handicapped。　First；　it　had　no　power　of　taxation　and　could　only　ask　the　States　to　provide　what　it　needed。　The　second　handicap　was　even　greater。　When　Congress　offered　bounties　to　those　who　enlisted　in　the　Continental　army；　some　of　the　States　offered　higher　bounties　for　their　own　levies　of　militia；　and　one　authority　was　bidding　against　the　other。　This　encouraged　short…term　enlistments。　If　a　man　could　re…enlist　and　again　secure　a　bounty；　he　would　gain　more　than　if　he　enlisted　at　once　for　the　duration　of　the　war。
  An　army　is　an　intricate　mechanism　needing　the　same　variety　of　agencies　that　is　required　for　the　well…being　of　a　community。　The　chief　aim　is；　of　course；　to　defeat　the　enemy；　and　to　do　this　an　army　must　be　prepared　to　move　rapidly。　Means　of　transport；　so　necessary　in　peace；　are　even　more　urgently　needed　in　war。　Thus　Washington　always　needed　military　engineers　to　construct　roads　and　bridges。　Before　the　Revolution　the　greater　part　of　such　services　had　been　provided　in　America　by　the　regular　British　army；　now　the　enemy。　British　officers　declared　that　the　American　army　was　without　engineers　who　knew　the　science　of　war；　and　certainly　the　forts　on　which　they　spent　their　skill　in　the　North；　those　on　the　lower　Hudson；　and　at　Ticonderoga；　at　the　head　of　Lake　George；　fell　easily　before　the　assailant。　Good　maps　were　needed；　and　in　this　Washington　was　badly　served；　though　the　defect　was　often　corrected　by　his　intimate　knowledge　of　the　country。　Another　service　ill…equipped　was　what　we　should　now　call　the　Red　Cross。　Epidemics；　and　especially　smallpox；　wrought　havoc　in　the　army。　Then；　as　now；　shattered　nerves　were　sometimes　the　result　of　the　strain　of　military　life。　〃The　wind　of　a　ball；〃　what　we　should　now　call　shellshock；　sometimes　killed　men　whose　bodies　appeared　to　be　uninjured。　To　our　more　advanced　knowledge　the　medical　science　of　the　time　seems　crude。　The　physicians　of　New　England；　today　perhaps　the　most　expert　body　of　medical　men　in　the　world；　were　even　then　highly　skillful。　But　the　surgeons　and　nurses　were　too　few。　This　was　true　of　both　sides　in　the　conflict。　Prisoners　in　hospitals　often　suffered　terribly　and　each　side　brought　charges　of　ill…treatment　against　the　other。　The　prison…ships　in　the　harbor　of　New　York；　where　American　prisoners　were　confined；　became　a　scandal；　and　much　bitter　invective　against　British　brutality　is　found　in　the　literature　of　the　period。　The　British　leaders；　no　less　than　Washington　himself；　were　humane　men；　and　ignorance　and　inadequate　equipment　will　explain　most　of　the　hardships；　though　an　occasional　officer　on　either　side　was　undoubtedly　callous　in　respect　to　the　sufferings　of　the　enemy。
  Food　and　clothing；　the　first　vital　necessities　of　an　army；　were　often　deplorably　scarce。　In　a　land　of　farmers　there　was　food　enough。　Its　lack　in　the　army　was　chiefly　due　to　bad　transport。　Clothing　was　another　matter。　One　of　the　things　insisted　upon　in　a　well…trained　army　is　a　decent　regard　for　appearance；　and　in　the　eyes　of　the　French　and　the　British　officers　the　American　army　usually　seemed　rather　unkempt。　The　formalities　of　dress；　the　uniformity　of　pipe…clay　and　powdered　hair；　of　polished　steel　and　brass；　can　of　course　be　overdone。　The　British　army　had　too　much　of　it；　but　to　Washington's　force　the　danger　was　of　having　too　li