that　his　men　had　skinned　two　dead　Indians　〃from　their　hips　down；　for　bootlegs；　one　pair　for　the　Major；　the　other　for　myself。〃　The　volunteers　varied　greatly　in　age。　There　were　bearded　veterans　of　sixty　and　a　sprinkling　of　lads　of　sixteen。　An　observer　laughed　at　the　boys　and　the　〃great　great　grandfathers〃　who　marched　side　by　side　in　the　army　before　Boston。　Occasionally　a　black　face　was　seen　in　the　ranks。　One　of　Washington's　tasks　was　to　reduce　the　disparity　of　years　and　especially　to　secure　men　who　could　shoot。　In　the　first　enthusiasm　of　1775　so　many　men　volunteered　in　Virginia　that　a　selection　was　made　on　the　basis　of　accuracy　in　shooting。　The　men　fired　at　a　range　of　one　hundred　and　fifty　yards　at　an　outline　of　a　man's　nose　in　chalk　on　a　board。　Each　man　had　a　single　shot　and　the　first　men　shot　the　nose　entirely　away。
  Undoubtedly　there　was　the　finest　material　among　the　men　lounging　about　their　quarters　at　Cambridge　in　fashion　so　unmilitary。　In　physique　they　were　larger　than　the　British　soldier；　a　result　due　to　abundant　food　and　free　life　in　the　open　air　from　childhood。　Most　of　the　men　supplied　their　own　uniform　and　rifles　and　much　barter　went　on　in　the　hours　after　drill。　The　men　made　and　sold　shoes；　clothes；　and　even　arms。　They　were　accustomed　to　farm　life　and　good　at　digging　and　throwing　up　entrenchments。　The　colonial　mode　of　waging　war　was；　however；　not　that　of　Europe。　To　the　regular　soldier　of　the　time　even　earth　entrenchments　seemed　a　sign　of　cowardice。　The　brave　man　would　come　out　on　the　open　to　face　his　foe。　Earl　Percy；　who　rescued　the　harassed　British　on　the　day　of　Lexington；　had　the　poorest　possible　opinion　of　those　on　what　he　called　the　rebel　side。　To　him　they　were　intriguing　rascals；　hypocrites；　cowards；　with　sinister　designs　to　ruin　the　Empire。　But　he　was　forced　to　admit　that　they　fought　well　and　faced　death　willingly。
  In　time　Washington　gathered　about　him　a　fine　body　of　officers；　brave；　steady；　and　efficient。　On　the　great　issue　they；　like　himself；　had　unchanging　conviction；　and　they　and　he　saved　the　revolution。　But　a　good　many　of　his　difficulties　were　due　to　bad　officers。　He　had　himself　the　reverence　for　gentility；　the　belief　in　an　ordered　grading　of　society；　characteristic　of　his　class　in　that　age。　In　Virginia　the　relation　of　master　and　servant　was　well　understood　and　the　tone　of　authority　was　readily　accepted。　In　New　England　conceptions　of　equality　were　more　advanced。　The　extent　to　which　the　people　would　brook　the　despotism　of　military　command　was　uncertain。　From　the　first　some　of　the　volunteers　had　elected　their　officers。　The　result　was　that　intriguing　demagogues　were　sometimes　chosen。　The　Massachusetts　troops；　wrote　a　Connecticut　captain；　not　free；　perhaps；　from　local　jealousy；　were　〃commanded　by　a　most　despicable　set　of　officers。〃　At　Bunker　Hill　officers　of　this　type　shirked　the　fight　and　their　men；　left　without　leaders；　joined　in　the　panicky　retreat　of　that　day。　Other　officers　sent　away　soldiers　to　work　on　their　farms　while　at　the　same　time　they　drew　for　them　public　pay。　At　a　later　time　Washington　wrote　to　a　friend　wise　counsel　about　the　choice　of　officers。　〃Take　none　but　gentlemen；　let　no　local　attachment　influence　you；　do　not　suffer　your　good　nature　to　say　Yes　when　you　ought　to　say　No。　Remember　that　it　is　a　public；　not　a　private　cause。〃　What　he　desired　was　the　gentleman's　chivalry　of　refinement；　sense　of　honor；　dignity　of　character；　and　freedom　from　mere　self…seeking。　The　prime　qualities　of　a　good　officer；　as　he　often　said；　were　authority　and　decision。　It　is　probably　true　of　democracies　that　they　prefer　and　will　follow　the　man　who　will　take　with　them　a　strong　tone。　Little　men；　however；　cannot　see　this　and　think　to　gain　support　by　shifty　changes　of　opinion　to　please　the　multitude。　What　authority　and　decision　could　be　expected　from　an　officer　of　the　peasant　type；　elected　by　his　own　men？　How　could　he　dominate　men　whose　short　term　of　service　was　expiring　and　who　had　to　be　coaxed　to　renew　it？　Some　elected　officers　had　to　promise　to　pool　their　pay　with　that　of　their　men。　In　one　company　an　officer　fulfilled　the　double　position　of　captain　and　barber。　In　time；　however；　the　authority　of　military　rank　came　to　be　respected　throughout　the　whole　army。　An　amusing　contrast　with　earlier　conditions　is　found　in　1779　when　a　captain　was　tried　by　a　brigade　court…martial　and　dismissed　from　the　service　for　intimate　association　with　the　wagon…maker　of　the　brigade。
  The　first　thing　to　do　at　Cambridge　was　to　get　rid　of　the　inefficient　and　the　corrupt。　Washington　had　never　any　belief　in　a　militia　army。　From　his　earliest　days　as　a　soldier　he　had　favored　conscription；　even　in　free　Virginia。　He　had　then　found　quite　ineffective　the　〃whooping；　holloing　gentlemen　soldiers〃　of　the　volunteer　force　of　the　colony　among　whom　〃every　individual　has　his　own　crude　notion　of　things　and　must　undertake　to　direct。　If　his　advice　is　neglected　he　thinks　himself　slighted；　abused；　and　injured　and；　to　redress　his　wrongs；　will　depart　for　his　home。〃　Washington　found　at　Cambridge　too　many　officers。　Then　as　later　in　the　American　army　there　were　swarms　of　colonels。　The　officers　from　Massachusetts；　conscious　that　they　had　seen　the　first　fighting　in　the　great　cause；　expected　special　consideration　from　a　stranger　serving　on　their　own　soil。　Soon　they　had　a　rude　awakening。　Washington　broke　a　Massachusetts　colonel　and　two　captains　because　they　had　proved　cowards　at　Bunker　Hill；　two　more　captains　for　fraud　in　drawing　pay　and　provisions　for　men　who　did　not　exist；　and　still　another　for　absence　from　his　post　when　he　was　needed。　He　put　in　jail　a　colonel；　a　major；　and　three　or　four　other　officers。　〃New　lords；　new　laws；〃　wrote　in　his　diary　Mr。　Emerson；　the　chaplain：　〃the　Generals　Washington　and　Lee　are　upon　the　lines　every　day。。。　great　distinction　is　made　between　officers　and　soldiers。〃
  The　term　of　all　the　volunteers　in　Washington's　any　expired　by　the　end　of　1775；　so　that　he　had　to　create　a　new　army　during　the　siege　of　Boston。　He　spoke　scornfully　of　an　enemy　so　little　enterprising　as　to　remain　supine　during　the　process。　But　probably　the　British　were　wise　to　avoid　a　venture　inland　and　to　remain　in　touch　with　their　fleet。　Washington　made　them　uneasy　when　he　drove　away　the　cattle　from　the　neighborhood。　Soon　beef　was　selling　in　Boston　for　as　much　as　eighteen　pence　a　pound。　Food　might　reach　Boston　in　ships　but　supplies　even　by　sea　were　insecure；　for　the　Americans　soon　had　privateers　manned　by　seamen　familiar　with　New　England　waters　and　happy　in　expected　gains　from　prize　money。　The　British　were　anxious　about　the　elementary　problem　of　food。　They　might　have　made　Washington　more　uncomfortable　by　forays　and　alarms。　Only　reluctantly；　however；　did　Howe；　who　took　over　the　command　on　October　10；　1775；　admit　to　himself　that　this　was　a　real　war。　He　still　hoped　for　settlement　without　further　bloodshed。　Washington　was　glad　to　learn　that　the　British　were　laying　in　supplies　of　coal　for　the　winter。　It　meant　that　they　intended　to　stay　in　Boston；　where；　more　than　in　any　other　place；　he　could　make　trouble　for　them。
  Washington　had　more　on　his　mind　than　the　creation　of　an　army　and　the　siege　of　Boston。　He　had　also　to　decide　the　strategy　of　the　war。　On　the　long　American　sea　front　Boston　alone　remained　in　British　hands。　New　York；　Philadelphia；　Charleston　and　other　ports　farther　south　were　all；　for　the　time；　on　the　side　of　the　Revolution。　Boston　was　not　a　good　naval　base　for　the　British；　since　it　commanded　no　great　waterway　leading　inland。　The　sprawling　colonies；　from　the　rock…bound　coast　of　New　England　to　the　swamps　and　forests　of　Georgia；　were　strong　in　their　incoherent　vastness。　There　were　a　thousand　miles　of　seacoast。　Only　rarely　were　considerable　settlements　to　be　found　more　than　a　hundred　miles　distant　from　salt　water。　An　army　marching　to　the　interior　would　have　increasing　difficulties　from　transport　and　supplies。　Wherever　water　routes　could　be　used　the　naval　power　of　the　British　gave　them　an　advantage。　One　such　route　was　the　Hudson；　less　a　river　than　a　navigable　arm　of　the　sea；　leading　to　the　heart　of　the　colony　of　New　York；　its　upper　waters　almost　touching　Lake　George　and　Lake　Champlain；　which　in　turn　led　to　the　St。　Lawrence　in　Canada　and　thence　to　the　sea。　Canada　was　held　by　the　British；　and　it　was　clear　that；　if　they　should　take　the　city　of　New　York；　they　might　command　the　whole　line　from　the　mouth　of　the　Hudson　to　the　St。　Lawrence；　and　so　cut　off　New　England　from　the　other　colonies　and　overcome　a　divided　enemy。　To　foil　this　policy　Washington　planned　to　hold　New　York　and　to　capture　Canada。　With　Canada　in　line　the　union　of　the　colonies　would　be　indeed　continental；　and；　if　the　British　were　driven　from　Boston；　they　would　have　no　secure　foothold　in　North　America。
  The　danger　from　Canada　had　always　been　a　source　of　anxiety　to　the　English　colonies。　The　French　had　made　Canada　a　base　for　attempts　to　drive　the　English　from　North　America。　During　many　decades　war　had　raged　along　the　Canadian　frontier。　With　the　cession　of　Canada　to　Britain　in　1763　this　danger　had　vanished。　The　old　habit　endured；　however；　of　fear　of　Canada。　When；　in　1774；　the　British　Parliament　passed　the　bill　for　the　government　of　Canada　known　as　the　Quebec　Act；　there　was　violent　clamor。　The　measure　was　assumed　to　be　a　calculated　threat　ag