The　Altruist　in　Politics
  by　Benjamin　Cardozo
  There　comes　not　seldom　a　crisis　in　the　life　of　men；　of　nations；
  and　of　worlds；　when　the　old　forms　seem　ready　to　decay；　and　the
  old　rules　of　action　have　lost　their　binding　force。　　The　evils　of
  existing　systems　obscure　the　blessings　that　attend　them；　and；
  where　reform　is　needed；　the　cry　is　raised　for　subversion。　　The
  cause　of　such　phenomena　is　not　far　to　seek。　　〃It　used　to　appear
  to　me；〃　writes　Count　Tolstoi；　in　a　significant　passage；　〃it　used
  to　appear　to　me　that　the　small　number　of　cultivated；　rich　and
  idle　men；　of　whom　I　was　one；　composed　the　whole　of　humanity；　and
  that　the　millions　and　millions　of　other　men　who　had　lived　and　are
  still　living　were　not　in　reality　men　at　all。〃　　It　is　this　spirit…
  the　spirit　that　sees　the　whole　of　humanity　in　the　few；　and　throws
  into　the　background　the　millions　and　millions　of　other　men…it　is
  this　spirit　that　has　aroused　the　antagonism　of　reformers；　and
  made　the　decay　of　the　old　forms；　the　rupture　of　the　old
  restrictions；　the　ideal　of　them　and　of　their　followers。　　When
  wealth　and　poverty　meet　each　other　face　to　face；　the　one　the
  master　and　the　other　the　dependent；　the　one　exalted　and　the　other
  debased；　it　is　perhaps　hardly　matter　for　surprise　that　the
  dependent　and　debased　and　powerless　faction；　in　envy　of　their
  opponents'　supremacy；　should　demand；　not　simple　reform；　but
  absolute　community　and　equality　of　wealth。　　That　cry　for
  communism　is　no　new　one　in　the　history　of　mankind。　　Thousands　of
  years　ago　it　was　heard　and　acted　on；　and；　in　the　lapse　of
  centuries；　its　reverberations　have　but　swelled　in　volume。　　Again
  and　again；　the　altruist　has　arisen　in　politics；　has　bidden　us
  share　with　others　the　product　of　our　toil；　and　has　proclaimed　the
  communistic　dogma　as　the　panacea　for　our　social　ills。　　So　today；
  amid　the　buried　hopes　and　buried　projects　of　the　past；　the
  doctrine　of　communism　still　lives　in　the　minds　of　men。　　Under
  stress　of　misfortune；　or　in　dread　of　tyranny；　it　is　still
  preached　in　modern　times　as　Plato　preached　it　in　the　world　of　the
  Greeks。
  Yet　it　is　indeed　doubtful　whether；　in　the　history　of　mankind；　a
  doctrine　was　ever　taught　more　impracticable　or　more　false　to　the
  principles　it　professes　than　this　very　doctrine　of　communism。　　In
  a　world　where　self…interest　is　avowedly　the　ruling　motive；　it
  seeks　to　establish　at　once　an　all…reaching　and　all…controlling
  altruism。　　In　a　world　where　every　man　is　pushing　and　fighting　to
  outstrip　his　fellows；　it　would　make　him　toil　with　like　vigor　for
  their　common　welfare。　　In　a　world　where　a　man's　activity　is
  measured　by　the　nearness　of　reward；　it　would　hold　up　a
  prospective　recompense　as　an　equal　stimulant　to　labor。　　〃The　more
  bitterly　we　feel；〃　writes　George　Eliot；　〃the　more　bitterly　we
  feel　the　folly；　ignorance；　neglect；　or　self…seeking　of　those　who
  at　different　times　have　wielded　power；　the　stronger　is　the
  obligation　we　lay　on　ourselves　to　beware　lest　we　also；　by　a　too
  hasty　wresting　of　measures　which　seem　to　promise　immediate
  relief；　make　a　worse　time　of　it　for　our　own　generation；　and　leave
  a　bad　inheritance　for　our　children。〃　　In　the　future；　when　the
  remoteness　of　his　reward　shall　have　weakened　the　laborer's　zeal；
  we　shall　be　able　to　judge　more　fairly　of　the　blessings　that　the
  communist　offers。　　Instead　of　the　present　world；　where　some　at
  least　are　well…to…do　and　happy；　the　communist　holds　before　us　a
  world　where　all　alike　are　poor。　　For　the　activity；　the　push；　the
  vigor　of　our　modern　life；　his　substitute　is　a　life　aimless　and
  unbroken。　　And　so　we　have　to　say　to　communists　what　George　Eliot
  might　have　said：　Be　not　blinded　by　the　passions　of　the　moment；
  but　when　you　prate　about　your　own　wrongs　and　the　sufferings　of
  your　offspring；　take　heed　lest　in　the　long　run　you　make　a　worse
  time　of　it　for　your　own　generation；　and　leave　a　bad　inheritance
  for　your　children。
  Little　thought　has　been　taken　by　these　altruistic　reformers　for
  the　application　of　the　doctrines　they　uphold。　　To　the　question
  how　one　kind　of　labor　can　be　measured　against　another；　how　the
  labor　of　the　artisan　can　be　measured　against　the　labor　of　the
  artist；　how　the　labor　of　the　strong　can　be　measured　against　the
  labor　of　the　weak；　the　communists　can　give　no　answer。　　Absorbed；
  as　they　are；　in　the　principle　of　equality；　they　have　still
  forgotten　the　equality　of　work　in　the　equality　of　pay；　they　have
  forgotten　that　reward；　to　be　really　equal；　must　be　proportionate
  to　effort；　and　they　and　all　socialists　have　forgotten　that　we
  cannot　make　an　arithmetic　of　human　thought　and　feeling；　and　that
  for　all　our　crude　attempts　to　balance　recompense　against　toil；
  for　all　our　crude　attempts　to　determine　the　relative　severity　of
  different　kinds　of　toil；　for　all　our　crude　attempts　to　determine
  the　relative　strain　on　different　persons　of　the　same　kind　of
  toil；　yet　not　only　will　the　ratio；　dealing；　as　it　does；　with　our
  subjective　feelings；　be　a　blundering　one；　but　a　system　based　upon
  it　will　involve　inequalities　greater；　because　more　insidious；
  than　those　of　the　present　system　it　would　discard。
  Instances；　indeed；　are　not　wanting　to　substantiate　the　claim　that
  communism；　by　unduly　exalting　our　altruistic　impulses；　proceeds
  upon　a　false　psychological　basis。　　Yet　if　an　instance　is　to　be
  chosen；　it　would　be　hard　to　find　one　more　suggestive　than　that
  afforded　by　the　efforts　of　Robert　Owen。　　The　year　1824　saw　the
  rise　of　Owen's　little　community　of　New　Harmony；　and　the　year　of
  1828　saw　the　community's　final　disruption。　　Individuals　had
  appropriated　to　themselves　the　property　designed　for　all；　and
  even　Owen；　who　had　given　to　the　enterprise　his　money　and　his
  life；　was　obliged　to　admit　that　men　were　not　yet　fitted　for　the
  communistic　stage；　and　that　the　moment　of　transition　from
  individualism　to　communism　had　not　yet　arrived。　　Men　trained
  under　the　old　system；　with　its　eager　rivalry；　its　selfish
  interests；　could　not　quite　yet　enter　into　the　spirit　of　self…
  renunciation　that　communism　demands。　　And　Owen；　therefore；　was
  led　to　put　his　trust　in　education　as　the　great　moulder　of　the
  minds　of　men。　　Through　this　agency；　he　hoped；　the　eager　rivalry；
  the　selfish　interests；　the　sordid　love　of　gain；　might　be　lost　in
  higher；　purer；　more　disinterested　ends；　and；　animated　by　that
  hope…the　hope　that　in　the　fullness　of　time　another　New　Harmony；
  free　from　contention　and　the　disappointments　of　the　old　one；
  might　serve　to　immortalize　his　name…animated　by　that　hope；　Owen
  passed　the　last　thirty　years　of　his　life；　and　with　that　hope
  still　before　his　eyes　he　died。
  But　years　now　have　passed　since　Owen　lived；　the　second　New
  Harmony　has　not　yet　been　seen；　the　so…called　rational　system　of
  education　has　not　yet　transformed　the　impulses　or　the　aims　of
  men；　and　the　communist　of　today；　with　a　history　of　two　thousand
  years　of　failure　behind　him；　in　the　same　pathetic　confidence
  still　looks　for　the　realization　of　his　dreams　to　the　communism　of
  the　future。
  And　yet；　granting　that　communism　were　practicable；　granting　that
  Owen's　hopes　had　some　prospect　of　fulfillment；　the　doctrine　still
  embodies　evils　that　must　make　it　forever　inexpedient。　　The
  readers　of　Mr。　Matthew　Arnold's　works　must　have　noticed　the
  emphasis　with　which　he　dwells　on　the　instinct　of　expansion　as　a
  factor　in　human　progress。　　It　is　the　refutation　alike　of
  communism　and　socialism　that　they　thwart　the　instinct　of
  expansion；　that　they　substitute　for　individual　energy　the　energy
  of　the　government；　that　they　substitute　for　human　personality　the
  blind；　mechanical　power　of　the　State。　　The　one　system；　as　the
  other；　marks　the　end　of　individualism。　　The　one　system；　as　the
  other；　would　make　each　man　the　image　of　his　neighbor。　　The　one
  system；　as　the　other；　would　hold　back　the　progressive；　and；　by
  uniformity　of　reward；　gain　uniformity　of　type。
  I　can　look　forward　to　no　blissful　prospect　for　a　race　of　men
  that；　under　the　dominion　of　the　State；　at　the　cost　of　all　freedom
  of　action；　at　the　cost；　indeed；　of　their　own　true　selves；　shall
  enjoy；　if　one　will；　a　fair　abundance　of　the　material　blessings　of
  life。　　Some　Matthew　Arnold　of　the　future　would　inevitably　say　of
  them　in　phase　like　that　applied　to　the　Puritans　of　old：　〃They
  entered　the　prison　of　socialism　and　had　the　key　turned　upon　their
  spirit　there　for　hundreds　of　years。〃　　Into　that　prison　of
  socialism；　with　broken　enterprise　and　broken　energy；　as　serfs
  under　the　mastery　of　the　State；　while　human　personality　is
  preferred　to　unreasoning　mechanism；　mankind　must　hesitate　to
  step。　　When　they　shall　once　have　entered　within　it；　when　the　key
  shall　have　been　turn