and　chess…playing；　and　instruction　to　their　daughters　in　sewing；
  cutting　out；　and　embroidery　　the　Brehon　trained　his　foster…sons
  in　learning　of　the　highest　dignity；　the　lore　of　the　chief
  literary　profession。　He　took　payment；　but　it　was　the　law　which
  settled　it　for　him。　It　was　part　of　his　status；　and　not　the　result
  of　a　bargain。
  There　are　some　faint　traces　of　Fosterage　in　the　Hindoo　law；
  but　substantially　it　has　dropped　out　of　the　system。　The　vestiges
  of　Literary　Fosterage　are；　however；　tolerably　abundant　and　very
  plain。　According　to　the　general　custom　of　India；　the　Brahmin
  teacher　of　Brahmin　pupils　receives　no　payment　for　his　services；
  but　the　Hindoo　law　repeatedly　reserves　to　him　a　remote　succession
  to　their　property。　In　each　of　four　Brahminical　law…tracts　of
  great　authority；　the　Vyavahara　Mayukha；　the　Daya…Bhaga；　the
  Mitakshara；　and　the　Daya…Krama…Sangraha；　the　same　ancient　text　is
  quoted　（sometimes　but　not　always　attributed　to　Manu）；　which　is　to
  the　effect　that　'If　there　be　no　male　issue　the　nearest　kinsman
  inherits；　or　in　default　of　kindred；　the　preceptor；　or　failing　him
  the　disciple。'　One　commentator　explains　that　the　preceptor　is　the
  instructor　in　the　Vedas；　and　another　describes　him　as　the　person
  who　affords　religious　instruction　to　his　pupil　after　investing
  him　with　the　Brahminical　thread。　These　writers　add　that　if
  neither　teacher　nor　pupil　have　survived　the　deceased　his
  fellow…student　will　succeed。　Modern　cases　turning　on　these
  peculiar　rules　of　succession　may　be　found　in　the　Anglo…Indian　Law
  Reports。
  We　are　thus　brought　face　to　face　with　a　problem　which
  possesses　interest　in　proportion　to　its　difficulty　　the　problem
  of　the　origin　of　Castes。　I　cannot　profess　to　do　more　than
  approach　it；　but　the　opportunity　of　throwing　even　the　least　light
  on　a　subject　so　dark　ought　not　to　be　neglected。　First　let　me　say
  that；　among　the　comparatively　few　English　writers　who　have
  noticed　the　Brehon　lawyers；　some　have　loosely　described　them　as　a
  caste。　But　this　is　an　improper　use　of　the　word；　though　it　is　one
  not　uncommon　in　India。　As　regards　the　position　of　the　Brehons　in
  very　early　times；　the　evidence　of　the　Irish　records　is　consistent
  with　the　testimony　of　Caesar　as　to　the　literary　class　of　the
  Gallic　Celts；　and　seems　to　show　that　anyone　who　went　through　a
  particular　training　might　become　a　Brehon。　When；　however；　Ireland
  began　to　be　examined　by　English　observers；　it　is　plain　that　the
  art　and　knowledge　of　the　Brehon　had　become　hereditary　in　certain
  families　who　were　attached　to　or　dependent　on　the　Chiefs　of
  particular　tribes。　There　is　nothing　remarkable　in　this　change；
  which　has　obviously　occurred　with　a　vast　number　of　trades　and
  professions　in　India；　now　popularly　called　castes。　In　societies
  of　an　archaic　type；　a　particular　craft　or　kind　of　knowledge
  becomes　in　time　an　hereditary　profession　of　families；　almost　as　a
  matter　of　course。　The　difficulty　with　a　native　of　India；
  unsophisticated　by　English　ideas；　is　not　to　find　a　reason　why　a
  son　should　succeed　to　the　learning　of　his　father；　and
  consequently　to　his　office　and　duties；　his　difficulty　would
  rather　be　to　explain　to　himself　why　it　should　not　be　so；　and　how
  the　public　interests　could　be　consulted　by　any　other　arrangement。
  The　States　governed　by　native　Indian　Princes　are　becoming　a　good
  deal　Anglicised；　but　still　in　them　it　is　the　practically
  universal　rule　that　office　is　hereditary。　We　do　not；　however；
  thus　arrive　at　a　complete　account　of　the　growth　of　those　castes
  which　are　definite　sections　of　great　populations　one　only　of
  these　castes　really　survives　in　India；　that　of　the　Brahmins；　and
  it　is　strongly　suspected　that　the　whole　literary　theory　of　Caste；
  which　is　of　Brahmin　origin；　is　based　on　the　existence　of　the
  Brahmin　caste　atone。　Now；　the　tendency　of　knowledge　to　become
  hereditary　is；　by　itself；　consistent　with　a　great　variety　of
  religious　and　literary　cultivation；　but；　as　a　fact；　the　Brahmins
  of　India　are　a　remarkably　homogeneous　class；　admitting　（though　no
  doubt　with　considerable　local　qualifications）　a　general
  brotherhood　of　all　members　of　the　order。
  While；　then；　I　cannot　say　that　our　scanty　information
  respecting　changes　in　the　status　of　the　Brehon　lawyers　helps　us
  much　towards　a　comprehension　of　the　beginnings　of　Caste　in　the
  true　sense；　I　certainly　think　that　we　learn　something　more　than
  we　knew　before　from　the　references　in　the　Brehon　tracts　to
  Literary　Fosterage。　They　appear　to　me　to　give　a　new　emphasis　and
  point　to　the　rules　of　Hindoo　Law　respecting　the　remote　succession
  of　the　'spiritual　preceptor'　to　the　property　of　families。　It
  seems　as　if　in　the　most　ancient　state　of　both　systems　Literary　or
  Religious　fatherhood　had　been　closely　assimilated　to　actual
  fatherhood。　Under　these　circumstances；　if　great　schools　of　Vedaic
  learning　existed　in　India　in　very　ancient　times；　as　we　have
  strong　reason　to　think　they　did；　the　relation　between　Teacher　and
  Pupil　would　closely　follow　and　imitate　the　relation　between
  father　and　son。　A　great　profession　would　thus　be　formed；　with
  stores　of　common　knowledge；　but　the　tie　between　the　members　would
  not　be　purely　intellectual；　it　would　from　the　first　be　conceived
  as　of　the　nature　of　kinship。　Such　a　system；　as　the　old　ideas
  decayed；　would　tend　infallibly　to　become　one　of　real
  consanguinity。　The　aptitude　for　sacred　know　ledge　would　come　to
  be　thought　to　run　in　the　blood　of　sons　whose　fathers　had　been
  instructed　in　it；　and　none　but　such　sons　would　be　received　into
  the　schools。　A　Caste　would　thus　be　formed；　in　the　eyes　of　its
  members　the　type　of　all　Castes。
  We　have　thus　strong　reason　for　thinking　that　societies　still
  under　the　influence　of　primitive　thought　labour　under　a　certain
  incapacity　for　regarding　men；　grouped　together　by　virtue　of　any
  institutions　whatsoever；　as　connected　otherwise　than　through
  blood…relationship。　We　find　that；　through　this　barrenness　of
  conception；　they　are　apt　to　extend　the　notion　of　consanguinity
  and　the　language　beginning　in　it　to　institutions　of　their　own　not
  really　founded　on　community　of　blood；　and　even　to　institutions　of
  foreign　origin。　We　find　also　that　the　association　between
  institutions　arising　from　true　kinship　and　institutions　based　on
  artificial　kinship　is　sometimes　so　strong；　that　the　emotions
  which　they　respectively　call　forth　are　practically
  indistinguishable。　These　phenomena　of　early　thought　and　feeling
  appear　to　me　amply　to　account　for　some　facts　of　Irish　history
  which　nearly　all　English　writers　on　Ireland　have　noticed　with
  extreme　surprise　or　indignation。　The　expressions　of　Sir　John
  Davis；　while　stating　that　many　of　the　early　Anglo…Norman
  adventurers　settled　in　Ireland　became　in　time　pure　Irish
  chieftains；　reflect　the　violent　astonishment　and　anger　which　the
  transformation　excited　in　Englishmen。　'The　English　Colonists　did
  embrace　and　use　the　Irish　custom；　after　they　had　rejected　the
  Civil　and　Honourable　Laws　and　Customs　of　England；　whereby　they
  became　degenerate　and　metamorphosed　like　Nebuchadnezzar；　who；
  although　he　had　the　face　of　a　man；　had　the　heart　of　a　beast；　or
  like　those　who　had　drunk　of　Circe's　cup　and　were　turned　into　very
  beasts；　and　yet　took　such　pleasure　in　their　beastly　manner　of
  life　as　they　would　not　return　to　their　shape　of　men　again；
  insomuch　as　within　less　time　than　the　age　of　a　man；　they　had　no
  marks　or　difference　left　among　them　of　that　noble　nation　from
  which　they　were　descended。'　The　fact；　stated　in　this　bitter
  language；　is　not　especially　marvellous。　We　have　seen　the　general
  complexion　of　Irish　society　giving　its　colour　to　institutions　of
  all　sorts　　associations　of　kinsmen　shading　off　into　assemblages
  of　partners　and　guild…brothers　　foster　parentage；　spiritual
  parentage；　and　preceptorship　taking　their　hue　from　natural
  paternity　　ecclesiastical　organisation　blending　with　tribal
  organisation。　The　Anglo…Norman　captain　who　had　thought　to　conquer
  for　himself　an　Irish　signory　passed　insensibly　in　the　same　way
  into　the　chieftain　of　an　Irish　tribe。　The　dependants　who
  surrounded　him　did　not　possibly　draw　any　clear　distinction
  between　the　actual　depositary　of　power　and　the　natural　depositary
  of　power；　and；　as　the　contagiousness　of　ideas　is　in　proportion　to
  their　fewness；　it　is　intelligible　that　he　too　was　affected　by　the
  mental　atmosphere　in　which　he　lived。　Nor　were　other　motives
  wanting。　The　extreme　poverty　and　constant　distractions　of　Ireland
  did　not　prevent　an　extraordinary　amount　of　the　pride　of
  authority；　of　the　pride　of　birth；　and　even　of　the　pride　of　wealth
  from　centring　in　the　dignity　of　an　Irish　Chief。