Lecture　VIII
  The　Growth　and　Diffusion　of　Primitive　Ideas
  Mr　Tylor　has　justly　observed　that　the　true　lesson　of　the　new
  science　of　Comparative　Mythology　is　the　barrenness　in　primitive
  times　of　the　faculty　which　we　most　associate　with　mental
  fertility；　the　Imagination。　Comparative　Jurisprudence；　as　might
  be　expected　from　the　natural　stability　of　law　and　custom；　yet
  more　strongly　suggests　the　same　inference；　and　points　to　the
  fewness　of　ideas　and　the　slowness　of　additions　to　the　mental
  stock　as　among　the　most　general　characteristics　of　mankind　in　its
  infancy。
  The　fact　that　the　generation　of　new　ideas　does　not　proceed　in
  all　states　of　society　as　rapidly　as　in　that　to　which　we　belong；
  is　only　not　familiar　to　us　through　our　inveterate　habit　of
  confining　our　observation　of　human　nature　to　a　small　portion　of
  its　phenomena。　When　we　undertake　to　examine　it；　we　are　very　apt
  to　look　exclusively　at　a　part　of　Western　Europe　and　perhaps　of
  the　American　Continent。　We　constantly　leave　aside　India；　China；
  and　the　whole　Mahometan　East。　This　limitation　of　our　field　of
  vision　is　perfectly　justifiable　when　we　are　occupied　with　the
  investigation　of　the　laws　of　Progress。　Progress　is；　in　fact；　the
  same　thing　as　the　continued　production　of　new　ideas；　and　we　can
  only　discover　the　law　of　this　production　by　examining　sequences
  of　ideas　where　they　are　frequent　and　of　considerable　length。　But
  the　primitive　condition　of　the　progressive　societies　is　best
  ascertained　from　the　observable　condition　of　those　which　are
  non…progressive；　and　thus　we　leave　a　serious　gap　in　our　knowledge
  when　we　put　aside　the　mental　state　of　the　millions　upon　millions
  of　men　who　fill　what　we　vaguely　call　the　East　as　a　phenomenon　of
  little　interest　and　of　no　instructiveness。　The　fact　is　not
  unknown　to　most　of　us　that；　among　these　multitudes；　Literature；
  Religion；　and　Art　　or　what　corresponds　to　them　　move　always
  within　a　distinctly　drawn　circle　of　unchanging　notions；　but　the
  fact　that　this　condition　of　thought　is　rather　the　infancy　of　the
  human　mind　prolonged　than　a　different　maturity　from　that　most
  familiar　to　us；　is　very　seldom　brought　home　to　us　with　a
  clearness　rendering　it　fruitful　of　instruction。
  I　do　not；　indeed；　deny　that　the　difference　between　the　East
  and　the　West；　in　respect　of　the　different　speed　at　which　new
  ideas　are　produced；　is　only　a　difference　of　degree。　There　were
  new　ideas　produced　in　India　even　during　the　disastrous　period
  just　before　the　English　entered　it；　and　in　the　earlier　ages　this
  production　must　have　been　rapid。　There　must　have　been　a　series　of
  ages　during　which　the　progress　of　China　was　very　steadily
  maintained；　and　doubtless　our　assumption　of　the　absolute
  immobility　of　the　Chinese　and　other　societies　is　in　part　the
  expression　of　our　ignorance。　Conversely；　I　question　whether　new
  ideas　come　into　being　in　the　West　as　rapidly　as　modern　literature
  and　conversation　sometimes　suggest。　It　cannot；　indeed；　be　doubted
  that　causes；　unknown　to　the　ancient　world；　lead　among　us　to　the
  multiplication　of　ideas。　Among　them　are　the　never　ceasing
  discovery　of　new　facts　of　nature；　inventions　changing　the
  circumstances　and　material　conditions　of　life；　and　new　rules　of
  social　conduct；　the　chief　of　this　last　class；　and　certainly　the
  most　powerful　in　the　domain　of　law　proper；　I　take　to　be　the
  famous　maxim　that　all　institutions　should　be　adapted　to　produce
  the　greatest　happiness　of　the　greatest　number。　Nevertheless；
  there　are　not　a　few　signs　that　even　conscious　efforts　to　increase
  the　number　of　ideas　have　a　very　limited　success。　Look　at　Poetry
  and　Fiction。　From　time　to　time　one　mind　endowed　with　the
  assemblage　of　qualities　called　genius　makes　a　great　and　sudden
  addition　to　the　combinations　of　thought；　word；　and　sound　which　it
  is　the　province　of　those　arts　to　produce；　yet　as　suddenly；　after
  one　or　a　few　such　efforts；　the　productive　activity　of　both
  branches　of　invention　ceases；　and　they　settle　down　into
  imitativeness　for　perhaps　a　century　at　a　time。　An　humbler　example
  may　be　sought　in　rules　of　social　habit。　We　speak　of　the　caprices
  of　Fashion；　yet；　on　examining　them　historically；　we　find　them
  singularly　limited；　so　much　so；　that　we　are　sometimes　tempted　to
  regard　Fashion　as　passing　through　cycles　of　form　ever　repeating
  themselves。　There　are；　in　fact；　more　natural　limitations　on　the
  fertility　of　intellect　than　we　always　admit　to　ourselves；　and
  these；　reflected　in　bodies　of　men；　translate　themselves　into　that
  weariness　of　novelty　which　seems　at　intervals　to　overtake　whole
  Western　societies；　including　minds　of　every　degree　of　information
  and　cultivation。
  My　present　object　is　to　point　out　some　of　the　results　of
  mental　sterility　at　a　time　when　society　is　in　the　stage　which　we
  have　been　considering。　Then；　the　relations　between　man　and　man
  were　summed　up　in　kinship。　The　fundamental　assumption　was　that
  all　men；　not　united　with　you　by　blood；　were　your　enemies　or　your
  slaves。　Gradually　the　assumption　became　untrue　in　fact；　and　men；
  who　were　not　blood　relatives；　became　related　to　one　another　on
  terms　of　peace　and　mutual　tolerance　or　mutual　advantage　Yet　no
  new　ideas　came　into　being　exactly　harmonising　with　the　new
  relation；　nor　was　any　new　phraseology　invented　to　express　it。　The
  new　member　of　each　group　was　spoken　of　as　akin　to　it；　was　treated
  as　akin　to　it；　was　thought　of　as　akin　to　it。　So　little　were　ideas
  changed　that；　as　we　shall　see；　the　very　affections　and　emotions
  which　the　natural　bond　evoked　were　called　forth　in　extraordinary
  strength　by　the　artificial　tie。　The　clear　apprehension　of　these
  facts　throws　light　on　several　historical　problems；　and　among　them
  on　some　of　Irish　history。　Yet　they　ought　not　greatly　to　surprise
  us；　since；　in　a　modified　form；　they　make　part　of　our　everyday
  experience。　Almost　everybody　can　observe　that；　when　new
  circumstances　arise；　we　use　our　old　ideas　to　bring　them　home　to
  us；　it　is　only　afterwards；　and　sometimes　long　afterwards；　that
  our　ideas　are　found　to　have　changed。　An　English　Court　of　Justice
  is　in　great　part　an　engine　for　working　out　this　process。　New
  combinations　of　circumstance　are　constantly　arising；　but　in　the
  first　instance　they　are　exclusively　interpreted　according　to　old
  legal　ideas。　A　little　later　lawyers　admit　that　the　old　ideas　are
  not　quite　what　they　were　before　the　new　circumstances　arose。
  The　slow　generation　of　ideas　in　ancient　times　may　first　be
  adduced　as　necessary　to　the　explanation　of　that　great　family　of
  Fictions　which　meet　us　on　the　threshold　of　history　and　historical
  jurisprudence。　Specimens　of　these　fictions　may　be　collected　on
  all　sides　from　bodies　of　archaic　custom　or　rudimentary　systems　of
  law；　but　those　most　to　our　present　purpose　are　fictitious
  assumptions　of　blood…relationship。　Elsewhere　I　have　pointed　out
  the　strange　conflict　between　belief　or　theory　and　what　seems　to
  us　notorious　fact；　which　is　observable　in　early　Roman　and
  Hellenic　society。　'It　may　be　affirmed　of　early　commonwealths　that
  their　citizens　considered　all　the　groups　in　which　they　claimed
  membership　to　be　founded　on　common　lineage。　What　was　obviously
  true　of　the　Family　was　believed　to　be　true　first　of　the　House；
  next　of　the　Tribe；　lastly　of　the　State。　And　yet　we　find　that；
  along　with　this　belief；　each　community　preserved　records　or
  traditions　which　distinctly　showed　that　the　fundamental
  assumption　was　false。　Whether　we　look　to　the　Greek　States；　or　to
  Rome；　or　to　the　Teutonic　aristocracies　in　Ditmarsh　which
  furnished　Niebuhr　with　so　many　valuable　illustrations；　or　to　the
  Celtic　clan　associations；　or　to　that　strange　social　organisation
  of　the　Sclavonic　Russians　and　Poles　which　has　only　lately
  attracted　notice；　everywhere　we　discover　traces　of　passages　in
  their　history　when　men　of　alien　descent　were　admitted　to；　and
  amalgamated　with；　the　original　brotherhood。　Adverting　to　Rome
  singly；　we　perceive　that　the　primary　group；　the　Family；　was　being
  constantly　adulterated　by　the　practice　of　adoption；　while　stories
  seem　to　have　been　always　current　respecting　the　exotic　extraction
  of　one　of　the　original　Tribes；　and　concerning　a　large　addition　to
  the　Houses　made　by　one　of　the　early　Kings。　The　composition　of　the
  State　uniformly　assumed　to　be　natural　was　nevertheless　known　to
  be　in　great　measure　artificial。'　（Ancient　Law；　pp。　129；　130。）　The
  key　to　these　singular　phenomena　has　been　recently　sought　in　the
  ancient　religions；　and　has　been　supposed　to　be　found　in　the
  alleged　universal　practice　of　worshipping　dead　ancestors。　Very
  striking　illustrations　of　them　are；　however；　supplied　by　the　law
  and　usage　of　Ireland　after　it　had　been　Christianised　for
  centuries；　and　long