and　to　introduce　Greek　civilization；　but　was　prevented　by　his　war　with
  the　Parthians　from　at　all　improving　this　vilest　of　nations；　for　at
  this　time　the　revolt　of　Arsaces　had　taken　place。　The　Macedonian
  power　was　now　weak；　while　the　Parthian　had　not　yet　reached　its　full
  strength；　and；　as　the　Romans　were　still　far　off；　the　Jews　chose
  kings　for　themselves。　Expelled　by　the　fickle　populace；　and　regaining
  their　throne　by　force　of　arms；　these　princes；　while　they　ventured　on
  the　wholesale　banishment　of　their　subjects；　on　the　destruction　of
  cities；　on　the　murder　of　brothers；　wives；　and　parents；　and　the　other
  usual　atrocities　of　despots；　fostered　the　national　superstition　by
  appropriating　the　dignity　of　the　priesthood　as　the　support　of　their
  political　power。
  Cneius　Pompeius　was　the　first　of　our　countrymen　to　subdue　the
  Jews。　Availing　himself　of　the　right　of　conquest；　he　entered　the
  temple。　Thus　it　became　commonly　known　that　the　place　stood　empty
  with　no　similitude　of　gods　within；　and　that　the　shrine　had　nothing
  to　reveal。　The　walls　of　Jerusalem　were　destroyed；　the　temple　was
  left　standing。　After　these　provinces　had　fallen；　in　the　course　of
  our　civil　wars；　into　the　hands　of　Marcus　Antonius；　Pacorus；　king　of
  the　Parthians；　seized　Judaea。　He　was　slain　by　Publius　Ventidius；　and
  the　Parthians　were　driven　back　over　the　Euphrates。　Caius　Sosius
  reduced　the　Jews　to　subjection。　The　royal　power；　which　had　been
  bestowed　by　Antony　on　Herod；　was　augmented　by　the　victorious　Augustus。
  On　Herod's　death；　one　Simon；　without　waiting　for　the　approbation　of
  the　Emperor；　usurped　the　title　of　king。　He　was　punished　by
  Quintilius　Varus　then　governor　of　Syria；　and　the　nation；　with　its
  liberties　curtailed；　was　divided　into　three　provinces　under　the　sons
  of　Herod。　Under　Tiberius　all　was　quiet。　But　when　the　Jews　were　ordered
  by　Caligula　to　set　up　his　statue　in　the　temple；　they　preferred　the
  alternative　of　war。　The　death　of　the　Emperor　put　an　end　to　the
  disturbance。　The　kings　were　either　dead；　or　reduced　to　insignificance；
  when　Claudius　entrusted　the　province　of　Judaea　to　the　Roman　Knights　or
  to　his　own　freedmen；　one　of　whom；　Antonius　Felix；　indulging　in　every
  kind　of　barbarity　and　lust；　exercised　the　power　of　a　king　in　the
  spirit　of　a　slave。　He　had　married　Drusilla；　the　granddaughter　of
  Antony　and　Cleopatra；　and　so　was　the　grandson…in…law；　as　Claudius
  was　the　grandson；　of　Antony。
  Yet　the　endurance　of　the　Jews　lasted　till　Gessius　Florus　was
  procurator。　In　his　time　the　war　broke　out。　Cestius　Gallus；　legate　of
  Syria；　who　attempted　to　crush　it；　had　to　fight　several　battles；
  generally　with　ill…success。　Cestius　dying；　either　in　the　course　of
  nature；　or　from　vexation；　Vespasian　was　sent　by　Nero；　and　by　help　of
  his　good　fortune；　his　high　reputation；　and　his　excellent　subordinates；
  succeeded　within　the　space　of　two　summers　in　occupying　with　his
  victorious　army　the　whole　of　the　level　country　and　all　the　cities；
  except　Jerusalem。　The　following　year　had　been　wholly　taken　up　with
  civil　strife；　and　had　passed；　as　far　as　the　Jews　were　concerned；　in
  inaction。　Peace　having　been　established　in　Italy；　foreign　affairs　were
  once　more　remembered。　Our　indignation　was　heightened　by　the
  circumstance　that　the　Jews　alone　had　not　submitted。　At　the　same　time
  it　was　held　to　be　more　expedient；　in　reference　to　the　possible　results
  and　contingencies　of　the　new　reign；　that　Titus　should　remain　with
  the　army。
  Accordingly　he　pitched　his　camp；　as　I　have　related；　before　the　walls
  of　Jerusalem；　and　displayed　his　legions　in　order　of　battle。
  The　Jews　formed　their　line　close　under　their　walls；　whence；　if
  successful；　they　might　venture　to　advance；　and　where；　if　repulsed；
  they　had　a　refuge　at　hand。　The　cavalry　with　some　light　infantry　was
  sent　to　attack　them；　and　fought　without　any　decisive　result。　Shortly
  afterwards　the　enemy　retreated。　During　the　following　days　they
  fought　a　series　of　engagements　in　front　of　the　gates；　till　they　were
  driven　within　the　walls　by　continual　defeats。　The　Romans　then　began　to
  prepare　for　an　assault。　It　seemed　beneath　them　to　await　the　result
  of　famine。　The　army　demanded　the　more　perilous　alternative；　some
  prompted　by　courage；　many　by　sheer　ferocity　and　greed　of　gain。　Titus
  himself　had　Rome　with　all　its　wealth　and　pleasures　before　his　eyes。
  Jerusalem　must　fall　at　once；　or　it　would　delay　his　enjoyment　of
  them。　But　the　commanding　situation　of　the　city　had　been　strengthened
  by　enormous　works　which　would　have　been　a　thorough　defence　even　for
  level　ground。　Two　hills　of　great　height　were　fenced　in　by　walls
  which　had　been　skilfully　obliqued　or　bent　inwards；　in　such　a　manner
  that　the　flank　of　an　assailant　was　exposed　to　missiles。　The　rock
  terminated　in　a　precipice；　the　towers　were　raised　to　a　height　of　sixty
  feet；　where　the　hill　lent　its　aid　to　the　fortifications；　where　the
  ground　fell；　to　a　height　of　one　hundred　and　twenty。　They　had　a
  marvellous　appearance；　and　to　a　distant　spectator　seemed　to　be　of
  uniform　elevation。　Within　were　other　walls　surrounding　the　palace；
  and；　rising　to　a　conspicuous　height；　the　tower　Antonia；　so　called　by
  Herod；　in　honour　of　Marcus　Antonius。
  The　temple　resembled　a　citadel；　and　had　its　own　walls；　which　were
  more　laboriously　constructed　than　the　others。　Even　the　colonnades　with
  which　it　was　surrounded　formed　an　admirable　outwork。　It　contained　an
  inexhaustible　spring；　there　were　subterranean　excavations　in　the　hill；
  and　tanks　and　cisterns　for　holding　rain　water。　The　founders　of　the
  state　had　foreseen　that　frequent　wars　would　result　from　the
  singularity　of　its　customs；　and　so　had　made　every　provision　against
  the　most　protracted　siege。　After　the　capture　of　their　city　by
  Pompey；　experience　and　apprehension　taught　them　much。　Availing
  themselves　of　the　sordid　policy　of　the　Claudian　era　to　purchase　the
  right　of　fortification；　they　raised　in　time　of　peace　such　walls　as
  were　suited　for　war。　Their　numbers　were　increased　by　a　vast　rabble
  collected　from　the　overthrow　of　the　other　cities。　All　the　most
  obstinate　rebels　had　escaped　into　the　place；　and　perpetual　seditions
  were　the　consequence。　There　were　three　generals；　and　as　many　armies。
  Simon　held　the　outer　and　larger　circuit　of　walls。　John；　also　called
  Bargioras；　occupied　the　middle　city。　Eleazar　had　fortified　the　temple。
  John　and　Simon　were　strong　in　numbers　and　equipment；　Eleazar　in
  position。　There　were　continual　skirmishes；　surprises；　and　incendiary
  fires；　and　a　vast　quantity　of　corn　was　burnt。　Before　long　John　sent
  some　emissaries；　who；　under　pretence　of　sacrificing；　slaughtered
  Eleazar　and　his　partisans；　and　gained　possession　of　the　temple。　The
  city　was　thus　divided　between　two　factions；　till；　as　the　Romans
  approached；　war　with　the　foreigner　brought　about　a　reconciliation。
  Prodigies　had　occurred；　which　this　nation；　prone　to　superstition；
  but　hating　all　religious　rites；　did　not　deem　it　lawful　to　expiate　by
  offering　and　sacrifice。　There　had　been　seen　hosts　joining　battle　in
  the　skies；　the　fiery　gleam　of　arms；　the　temple　illuminated　by　a　sudden
  radiance　from　the　clouds。　The　doors　of　the　inner　shrine　were
  suddenly　thrown　open；　and　a　voice　of　more　than　mortal　tone　was　heard
  to　cry　that　the　Gods　were　departing。　At　the　same　instant　there　was　a
  mighty　stir　as　of　departure。　Some　few　put　a　fearful　meaning　on　these
  events；　but　in　most　there　was　a　firm　persuasion；　that　in　the　ancient
  records　of　their　priests　was　contained　a　prediction　of　how　at　this
  very　time　the　East　was　to　grow　powerful；　and　rulers；　coming　from
  Judaea；　were　to　acquire　universal　empire。　These　mysterious
  prophecies　had　pointed　to　Vespasian　and　Titus；　but　the　common
  people；　with　the　usual　blindness　of　ambition；　had　interpreted　these
  mighty　destinies　of　themselves；　and　could　not　be　brought　even　by
  disasters　to　believe　the　truth。　I　have　heard　that　the　total　number
  of　the　besieged；　of　every　age　and　both　sexes；　amounted　to　six
  hundred　thousand。　All　who　were　able　bore　arms；　and　a　number；　more　than
  proportionate　to　the　population；　had　the　courage　to　do　so。　Men　and
  women　showed　equal　resolution；　and　life　seemed　more　terrible　than
  death；　if　they　were　to　be　forced　to　leave　their　country。　Such　was　this
  city　and　nation；　and　Titus　Caesar；　seeing　that　the　position　forbad
  an　assault　or　any　of　the　more　rapid　operations　of　war；　determined　to
  proceed　by　earthworks　and　covered　approaches。　The　legions　had　their
  respective　duties　assigned　to　them；　and　there　was　a　cessation　from
  fighting；　till　all　the　inventions；　used　in　ancient　warfare；　or　devised
  by　modern　ingenuity　for　the　reduction　of　cities；　were　constructed。
  Meanwhile　Civilis；　having　recruited　his　army　from　Germany　after
  his　defeat　among　the　Treveri；　took　up　his　position　at　the　Old　C