hen　judges　are　very　numerous　many　of　them　must　necessarily　be　incapable　of　performing　their　important　duties；　for　a　great　magistrate　is　a　man　of　no　common　powers；　and　I　am　inclined　to　believe　that　a　half…enlightened　tribunal　is　the　worst　of　all　instruments　for　attaining　those　objects　which　it　is　the　purpose　of　courts　of　justice　to　accomplish。　　For　my　own　part；　I　had　rather　submit　the　decision　of　a　case　to　ignorant　jurors　directed　by　a　skilful　judge　than　to　judges　a　majority　of　whom　are　imperfectly　acquainted　with　jurisprudence　and　with　the　laws。＇
  I　turn；　however；　from　this　part　of　the　subject。　　To　look　upon　the　jury　as　a　mere　judicial　institution　is　to　confine　our　attention　to　a　very　narrow　view　of　it；　for　however　great　its　influence　may　be　upon　the　decisions　of　the　law　courts；　that　influence　is　very　subordinate　to　the　powerful　effects　which　it　produces　on　the　destinies　of　the　community　at　large。　　The　jury　is　above　all　a　political　institution；　and　it　must　be　regarded　in　this　light　in　order　to　be　duly　appreciated。
  By　the　jury　I　mean　a　certain　number　of　citizens　chosen　indiscriminately；　and　invested　with　a　temporary　right　of　judging。　　Trial　by　jury；　as　applied　to　the　repression　of　crime；　appears　to　me　to　introduce　an　eminently　republican　element　into　the　government　upon　the　following　grounds：…
  The　institution　of　the　jury　may　be　aristocratic　or　democratic；　according　to　the　class　of　society　from　which　the　jurors　are　selected；　but　it　always　preserves　its　republican　character；　inasmuch　as　it　places　the　real　direction　of　society　in　the　hands　of　the　governed；　or　of　a　portion　of　the　governed；　instead　of　leaving　it　under　the　authority　of　the　Government。　　Force　is　never　more　than　a　transient　element　of　success；　and　after　force　comes　the　notion　of　right。　　A　government　which　should　only　be　able　to　crush　its　enemies　upon　a　field　of　battle　would　very　soon　be　destroyed。　　The　true　sanction　of　political　laws　is　to　be　found　in　penal　legislation；　and　if　that　sanction　be　wanting　the　law　will　sooner　or　later　lose　its　cogency。　　He　who　punishes　infractions　of　the　law　is　therefore　the　real　master　of　society。　　Now　the　institution　of　the　jury　raises　the　people　itself；　or　at　least　a　class　of　citizens；　to　the　bench　of　judicial　authority。　　The　institution　of　the　jury　consequently　invests　the　people；　or　that　class　of　citizens；　with　the　direction　of　society。　*e
  ＇Footnote　e：　An　important　remark　must；　however；　be　made。　　Trial　by　jury　does　unquestionably　invest　the　people　with　a　general　control　over　the　actions　of　citizens；　but　it　does　not　furnish　means　of　exercising　this　control　in　all　cases；　or　with　an　absolute　authority。　　When　an　absolute　monarch　has　the　right　of　trying　offences　by　his　representatives；　the　fate　of　the　prisoner　is；　as　it　were；　decided　beforehand。　　But　even　if　the　people　were　predisposed　to　convict；　the　composition　and　the　non…responsibility　of　the　jury　would　still　afford　some　chances　favorable　to　the　protection　of　innocence。＇
  In　England　the　jury　is　returned　from　the　aristocratic　portion　of　the　nation；　*f　the　aristocracy　makes　the　laws；　applies　the　laws；　and　punishes　all　infractions　of　the　laws；　everything　is　established　upon　a　consistent　footing；　and　England　may　with　truth　be　said　to　constitute　an　aristocratic　republic。　In　the　United　States　the　same　system　is　applied　to　the　whole　people。　　Every　American　citizen　is　qualified　to　be　an　elector；　a　juror；　and　is　eligible　to　office。　*g　The　system　of　the　jury；　as　it　is　understood　in　America；　appears　to　me　to　be　as　direct　and　as　extreme　a　consequence　of　the　sovereignty　of　the　people　as　universal　suffrage。　　These　institutions　are　two　instruments　of　equal　power；　which　contribute　to　the　supremacy　of　the　majority。　　All　the　sovereigns　who　have　chosen　to　govern　by　their　own　authority；　and　to　direct　society　instead　of　obeying　its　directions；　have　destroyed　or　enfeebled　the　institution　of　the　jury。　　The　monarchs　of　the　House　of　Tudor　sent　to　prison　jurors　who　refused　to　convict；　and　Napoleon　caused　them　to　be　returned　by　his　agents。
  ＇Footnote　f：　＇This　may　be　true　to　some　extent　of　special　juries；　but　not　of　common　juries。　　The　author　seems　not　to　have　been　aware　that　the　qualifications　of　jurors　in　England　vary　exceedingly。＇＇
  ＇Footnote　g：　See　Appendix；　Q。＇
  However　clear　most　of　these　truths　may　seem　to　be；　they　do　not　command　universal　assent；　and　in　France；　at　least；　the　institution　of　trial　by　jury　is　still　very　imperfectly　understood。　　If　the　question　arises　as　to　the　proper　qualification　of　jurors；　it　is　confined　to　a　discussion　of　the　intelligence　and　knowledge　of　the　citizens　who　may　be　returned；　as　if　the　jury　was　merely　a　judicial　institution。　　This　appears　to　me　to　be　the　least　part　of　the　subject。　The　jury　is　pre…eminently　a　political　institution；　it　must　be　regarded　as　one　form　of　the　sovereignty　of　the　people；　when　that　sovereignty　is　repudiated；　it　must　be　rejected；　or　it　must　be　adapted　to　the　laws　by　which　that　sovereignty　is　established。　　The　jury　is　that　portion　of　the　nation　to　which　the　execution　of　the　laws　is　entrusted；　as　the　Houses　of　Parliament　constitute　that　part　of　the　nation　which　makes　the　laws；　and　in　order　that　society　may　be　governed　with　consistency　and　uniformity；　the　list　of　citizens　qualified　to　serve　on　juries　must　increase　and　diminish　with　the　list　of　electors。　　This　I　hold　to　be　the　point　of　view　most　worthy　of　the　attention　of　the　legislator；　and　all　that　remains　is　merely　accessory。
  I　am　so　entirely　convinced　that　the　jury　is　pre…eminently　a　political　institution　that　I　still　consider　it　in　this　light　when　it　is　applied　in　civil　causes。　　Laws　are　always　unstable　unless　they　are　founded　upon　the　manners　of　a　nation；　manners　are　the　only　durable　and　resisting　power　in　a　people。　　When　the　jury　is　reserved　for　criminal　offences；　the　people　only　witnesses　its　occasional　action　in　certain　particular　cases；　the　ordinary　course　of　life　goes　on　without　its　interference；　and　it　is　considered　as　an　instrument；　but　not　as　the　only　instrument；　of　obtaining　justice。　　This　is　true　a　fortiori　when　the　jury　is　only　applied　to　certain　criminal　causes。
  When；　on　the　contrary；　the　influence　of　the　jury　is　extended　to　civil　causes；　its　application　is　constantly　palpable；　it　affects　all　the　interests　of　the　community；　everyone　co…operates　in　its　work：　it　thus　penetrates　into　all　the　usages　of　life；　it　fashions　the　human　mind　to　its　peculiar　forms；　and　is　gradually　associated　with　the　idea　of　justice　itself。
  The　institution　of　the　jury；　if　confined　to　criminal　causes；　is　always　in　danger；　but　when　once　it　is　introduced　into　civil　proceedings　it　defies　the　aggressions　of　time　and　of　man。　　If　it　had　been　as　easy　to　remove　the　jury　from　the　manners　as　from　the　laws　of　England；　it　would　have　perished　under　Henry　VIII；　and　Elizabeth；　and　the　civil　jury　did　in　reality；　at　that　period；　save　the　liberties　of　the　country。　　In　whatever　manner　the　jury　be　applied；　it　cannot　fail　to　exercise　a　powerful　influence　upon　the　national　character；　but　this　influence　is　prodigiously　increased　when　it　is　introduced　into　civil　causes。　　The　jury；　and　more　especially　the　jury　in　civil　cases；　serves　to　communicate　the　spirit　of　the　judges　to　the　minds　of　all　the　citizens；　and　this　spirit；　with　the　habits　which　attend　it；　is　the　soundest　preparation　for　free　institutions。　　It　imbues　all　classes　with　a　respect　for　the　thing　judged；　and　with　the　notion　of　right。　　If　these　two　elements　be　removed；　the　love　of　independence　is　reduced　to　a　mere　destructive　passion。　It　teaches　men　to　practice　equity；　every　man　learns　to　judge　his　neighbor　as　he　would　himself　be　judged；　and　this　is　especially　true　of　the　jury　in　civil　causes；　for；　whilst　the　number　of　persons　who　have　reason　to　apprehend　a　criminal　prosecution　is　small；　every　one　is　liable　to　have　a　civil　action　brought　against　him。　　The　jury　teaches　every　man　not　to　recoil　before　the　responsibility　of　his　own　actions；　and　impresses　him　with　that　manly　confidence　without　which　political　virtue　cannot　exist。　　It　invests　each　citizen　with　a　kind　of　magistracy；　it　makes　them　all　feel　the　duties　which　they　are　bound　to　discharge　towards　society；　and　the　part　which　they　take　in　the　Government。　　By　obliging　men　to　turn　their　attention　to　affairs　which　are　not　exclusively　their　own；　it　rubs　off　that　individual　egotism　which　is　the　rust　of　society。
  The　jury　contributes　most　powerfully　to　form　the　judgement　and　to　increase　the　natural　intelligence　of　a　people；　and　this　is；　in　my　opinion；　its　greatest　advantage。　　It　may　be　regarded　as　a　gratuitous　public　school　ever　open；　in　which　every　juror　learns　to　exercise　his　rights；　enters　into　daily　communication　with　the　most　learned　and　enlightened　members　of　the　upper　classes；　and　becomes　practically　acquainted　with　the　laws　of　his　country；　which　are　brought　within　the　reach　of　his　capacity　by　the　efforts　of　the　bar；　the　advice　of　the　judge；　and　even　by　the　passions　of　the　parties。　I　think　that　the　practical　intelligence　and　political　good　sense　of　the　Americans　are　mainly　attributable　to　the　long　use　which　they　have　made　of　the　jury　in　civil　causes。　　I　do　not　know　whether　the　jury　is　useful　to　those　who　are　in　litigation；　but　I　am　certain　it　is　highly　beneficial　to　those　who　decide　the　litigation；　and　I　look　upon