ng　the　heads　of　the　Government。　　It　is　a　well…authenticated　fact；　that　at　the　present　day　the　most　able　men　in　the　United　States　are　very　rarely　placed　at　the　head　of　affairs；　and　it　must　be　acknowledged　that　such　has　been　the　result　in　proportion　as　democracy　has　outstepped　all　its　former　limits。　The　race　of　American　statesmen　has　evidently　dwindled　most　remarkably　in　the　course　of　the　last　fifty　years。
  Several　causes　may　be　assigned　to　this　phenomenon。　　It　is　impossible；　notwithstanding　the　most　strenuous　exertions；　to　raise　the　intelligence　of　the　people　above　a　certain　level。　　Whatever　may　be　the　facilities　of　acquiring　information；　whatever　may　be　the　profusion　of　easy　methods　and　of　cheap　science；　the　human　mind　can　never　be　instructed　and　educated　without　devoting　a　considerable　space　of　time　to　those　objects。
  The　greater　or　the　lesser　possibility　of　subsisting　without　labor　is　therefore　the　necessary　boundary　of　intellectual　improvement。　　This　boundary　is　more　remote　in　some　countries　and　more　restricted　in　others；　but　it　must　exist　somewhere　as　long　as　the　people　is　constrained　to　work　in　order　to　procure　the　means　of　physical　subsistence；　that　is　to　say；　as　long　as　it　retains　its　popular　character。　　It　is　therefore　quite　as　difficult　to　imagine　a　State　in　which　all　the　citizens　should　be　very　well　informed　as　a　State　in　which　they　should　all　be　wealthy；　these　two　difficulties　may　be　looked　upon　as　correlative。　　It　may　very　readily　be　admitted　that　the　mass　of　the　citizens　are　sincerely　disposed　to　promote　the　welfare　of　their　country；　nay　more；　it　may　even　be　allowed　that　the　lower　classes　are　less　apt　to　be　swayed　by　considerations　of　personal　interest　than　the　higher　orders：　but　it　is　always　more　or　less　impossible　for　them　to　discern　the　best　means　of　attaining　the　end　which　they　desire　with　sincerity。　　Long　and　patient　observation；　joined　to　a　multitude　of　different　notions；　is　required　to　form　a　just　estimate　of　the　character　of　a　single　individual；　and　can　it　be　supposed　that　the　vulgar　have　the　power　of　succeeding　in　an　inquiry　which　misleads　the　penetration　of　genius　itself？　　The　people　has　neither　the　time　nor　the　means　which　are　essential　to　the　prosecution　of　an　investigation　of　this　kind：　its　conclusions　are　hastily　formed　from　a　superficial　inspection　of　the　more　prominent　features　of　a　question。　　Hence　it　often　assents　to　the　clamor　of　a　mountebank　who　knows　the　secret　of　stimulating　its　tastes；　while　its　truest　friends　frequently　fail　in　their　exertions。
  Moreover；　the　democracy　is　not　only　deficient　in　that　soundness　of　judgment　which　is　necessary　to　select　men　really　deserving　of　its　confidence；　but　it　has　neither　the　desire　nor　the　inclination　to　find　them　out。　　It　cannot　be　denied　that　democratic　institutions　have　a　very　strong　tendency　to　promote　the　feeling　of　envy　in　the　human　heart；　not　so　much　because　they　afford　to　every　one　the　means　of　rising　to　the　level　of　any　of　his　fellow…citizens；　as　because　those　means　perpetually　disappoint　the　persons　who　employ　them。　Democratic　institutions　awaken　and　foster　a　passion　for　equality　which　they　can　never　entirely　satisfy。　　This　complete　equality　eludes　the　grasp　of　the　people　at　the　very　moment　at　which　it　thinks　to　hold　it　fast；　and　〃flies；〃　as　Pascal　says；　〃with　eternal　flight〃；　the　people　is　excited　in　the　pursuit　of　an　advantage；　which　is　more　precious　because　it　is　not　sufficiently　remote　to　be　unknown；　or　sufficiently　near　to　be　enjoyed。　The　lower　orders　are　agitated　by　the　chance　of　success；　they　are　irritated　by　its　uncertainty；　and　they　pass　from　the　enthusiasm　of　pursuit　to　the　exhaustion　of　ill…success；　and　lastly　to　the　acrimony　of　disappointment。　Whatever　transcends　their　own　limits　appears　to　be　an　obstacle　to　their　desires；　and　there　is　no　kind　of　superiority；　however　legitimate　it　may　be；　which　is　not　irksome　in　their　sight。
  It　has　been　supposed　that　the　secret　instinct　which　leads　the　lower　orders　to　remove　their　superiors　as　much　as　possible　from　the　direction　of　public　affairs　is　peculiar　to　France。　　This；　however；　is　an　error；　the　propensity　to　which　I　allude　is　not　inherent　in　any　particular　nation；　but　in　democratic　institutions　in　general；　and　although　it　may　have　been　heightened　by　peculiar　political　circumstances；　it　owes　its　origin　to　a　higher　cause。
  In　the　United　States　the　people　is　not　disposed　to　hate　the　superior　classes　of　society；　but　it　is　not　very　favorably　inclined　towards　them；　and　it　carefully　excludes　them　from　the　exercise　of　authority。　　It　does　not　entertain　any　dread　of　distinguished　talents；　but　it　is　rarely　captivated　by　them；　and　it　awards　its　approbation　very　sparingly　to　such　as　have　risen　without　the　popular　support。
  Whilst　the　natural　propensities　of　democracy　induce　the　people　to　reject　the　most　distinguished　citizens　as　its　rulers；　these　individuals　are　no　less　apt　to　retire　from　a　political　career　in　which　it　is　almost　impossible　to　retain　their　independence；　or　to　advance　without　degrading　themselves。　　This　opinion　has　been　very　candidly　set　forth　by　Chancellor　Kent；　who　says；　in　speaking　with　great　eulogiums　of　that　part　of　the　Constitution　which　empowers　the　Executive　to　nominate　the　judges：　〃It　is　indeed　probable　that　the　men　who　are　best　fitted　to　discharge　the　duties　of　this　high　office　would　have　too　much　reserve　in　their　manners；　and　too　much　austerity　in　their　principles；　for　them　to　be　returned　by　the　majority　at　an　election　where　universal　suffrage　is　adopted。〃　Such　were　the　opinions　which　were　printed　without　contradiction　in　America　in　the　year　1830！
  I　hold　it　to　be　sufficiently　demonstrated　that　universal　suffrage　is　by　no　means　a　guarantee　of　the　wisdom　of　the　popular　choice；　and　that；　whatever　its　advantages　may　be；　this　is　not　one　of　them。
  Causes　Which　May　Partly　Correct　These　Tendencies　Of　The　Democracy　　Contrary　effects　produced　on　peoples　as　well　as　on　individuals　by　great　dangers　…　Why　so　many　distinguished　men　stood　at　the　head　of　affairs　in　America　fifty　years　ago　…　Influence　which　the　intelligence　and　the　manners　of　the　people　exercise　upon　its　choice　…　Example　of　New　England　…　States　of　the　Southwest　…　Influence　of　certain　laws　upon　the　choice　of　the　people　…　Election　by　an　elected　body　…　Its　effects　upon　the　composition　of　the　Senate。
  When　a　State　is　threatened　by　serious　dangers；　the　people　frequently　succeeds　in　selecting　the　citizens　who　are　the　most　able　to　save　it。　　It　has　been　observed　that　man　rarely　retains　his　customary　level　in　presence　of　very　critical　circumstances；　he　rises　above　or　he　sinks　below　his　usual　condition；　and　the　same　thing　occurs　in　nations　at　large。　　Extreme　perils　sometimes　quench　the　energy　of　a　people　instead　of　stimulating　it；　they　excite　without　directing　its　passions；　and　instead　of　clearing　they　confuse　its　powers　of　perception。　　The　Jews　deluged　the　smoking　ruins　of　their　temple　with　the　carnage　of　the　remnant　of　their　host。　　But　it　is　more　common；　both　in　the　case　of　nations　and　in　that　of　individuals；　to　find　extraordinary　virtues　arising　from　the　very　imminence　of　the　danger。　　Great　characters　are　then　thrown　into　relief；　as　edifices　which　are　concealed　by　the　gloom　of　night　are　illuminated　by　the　glare　of　a　conflagration。　　At　those　dangerous　times　genius　no　longer　abstains　from　presenting　itself　in　the　arena；　and　the　people；　alarmed　by　the　perils　of　its　situation；　buries　its　envious　passions　in　a　short　oblivion。　Great　names　may　then　be　drawn　from　the　balloting…box。
  I　have　already　observed　that　the　American　statesmen　of　the　present　day　are　very　inferior　to　those　who　stood　at　the　head　of　affairs　fifty　years　ago。　This　is　as　much　a　consequence　of　the　circumstances　as　of　the　laws　of　the　country。　　When　America　was　struggling　in　the　high　cause　of　independence　to　throw　off　the　yoke　of　another　country；　and　when　it　was　about　to　usher　a　new　nation　into　the　world；　the　spirits　of　its　inhabitants　were　roused　to　the　height　which　their　great　efforts　required。　　In　this　general　excitement　the　most　distinguished　men　were　ready　to　forestall　the　wants　of　the　community；　and　the　people　clung　to　them　for　support；　and　placed　them　at　its　head。　　But　events　of　this　magnitude　are　rare；　and　it　is　from　an　inspection　of　the　ordinary　course　of　affairs　that　our　judgment　must　be　formed。
  If　passing　occurrences　sometimes　act　as　checks　upon　the　passions　of　democracy；　the　intelligence　and　the　manners　of　the　community　exercise　an　influence　which　is　not　less　powerful　and　far　more　permanent。　　This　is　extremely　perceptible　in　the　United　States。
  In　New　England　the　education　and　the　liberties　of　the　communities　were　engendered　by　the　moral　and　religious　principles　of　their　founders。　　Where　society　has　acquired　a　sufficient　degree　of　stability　to　enable　it　to　hold　certain　maxims　and　to　retain　fixed　habits；　the　lower　orders　are　accustomed　to　respect　intellectual　superiority　and　to　submit　to　it　without　complaint；　although　they　set　at　naught　all　those　privileges　which　wealth　and　birth　have　introduced　among　mankind。　　The　democracy　in　New　England　consequently　makes　a　more　judicious　choice　than　it　does　elsewhere。
  But　as　we　descend　towards　the　South；　to　those　States　in　which　the　constitution　of　society　is　more　modern　and　less　strong；　where　instruction　is　le