n；　represented　by　the　Union；　should　continue　to　form　a　compact　body；　and　to　provide　for　the　general　exigencies　of　the　people。　　It　was　as　impossible　to　determine　beforehand；　with　any　degree　of　accuracy；　the　share　of　authority　which　each　of　two　governments　was　to　enjoy；　as　to　foresee　all　the　incidents　in　the　existence　of　a　nation。
  The　obligations　and　the　claims　of　the　Federal　Government　were　simple　and　easily　definable；　because　the　Union　had　been　formed　with　the　express　purpose　of　meeting　the　general　exigencies　of　the　people；　but　the　claims　and　obligations　of　the　States　were；　on　the　other　hand；　complicated　and　various；　because　those　Governments　had　penetrated　into　all　the　details　of　social　life。　The　attributes　of　the　Federal　Government　were　therefore　carefully　enumerated　and　all　that　was　not　included　amongst　them　was　declared　to　constitute　a　part　of　the　privileges　of　the　several　Governments　of　the　States。　　Thus　the　government　of　the　States　remained　the　rule；　and　that　of　the　Confederation　became　the　exception。　*e
  ＇Footnote　e：　See　the　Amendment　to　the　Federal　Constitution；　〃Federalist；〃　No。　32；　Story；　p。　711；　Kent's　〃Commentaries；〃　vol。　i。　p。　364。
  It　is　to　be　observed　that　whenever　the　exclusive　right　of　regulating　certain　matters　is　not　reserved　to　Congress　by　the　Constitution；　the　States　may　take　up　the　affair　until　it　is　brought　before　the　National　Assembly。　　For　instance；　Congress　has　the　right　of　making　a　general　law　on　bankruptcy；　which；　however；　it　neglects　to　do。　　Each　State　is　then　at　liberty　to　make　a　law　for　itself。　　This　point　has　been　established　by　discussion　in　the　law…courts；　and　may　be　said　to　belong　more　properly　to　jurisprudence。＇
  But　as　it　was　foreseen　that；　in　practice；　questions　might　arise　as　to　the　exact　limits　of　this　exceptional　authority；　and　that　it　would　be　dangerous　to　submit　these　questions　to　the　decision　of　the　ordinary　courts　of　justice；　established　in　the　States　by　the　States　themselves；　a　high　Federal　court　was　created；　*f　which　was　destined；　amongst　other　functions；　to　maintain　the　balance　of　power　which　had　been　established　by　the　Constitution　between　the　two　rival　Governments。　*g
  ＇Footnote　f：　The　action　of　this　court　is　indirect；　as　we　shall　hereafter　show。＇
  ＇Footnote　g：　It　is　thus　that　〃The　Federalist；〃　No。　45；　explains　the　division　of　supremacy　between　the　Union　and　the　States：　〃The　powers　delegated　by　the　Constitution　to　the　Federal　Government　are　few　and　defined。　　Those　which　are　to　remain　in　the　State　Governments　are　numerous　and　indefinite。　　The　former　will　be　exercised　principally　on　external　objects；　as　war；　peace；　negotiation；　and　foreign　commerce。　　The　powers　reserved　to　the　several　States　will　extend　to　all　the　objects　which；　in　the　ordinary　course　of　affairs；　concern　the　internal　order　and　prosperity　of　the　State。〃　I　shall　often　have　occasion　to　quote　〃The　Federalist〃　in　this　work。　　When　the　bill　which　has　since　become　the　Constitution　of　the　United　States　was　submitted　to　the　approval　of　the　people；　and　the　discussions　were　still　pending；　three　men；　who　had　already　acquired　a　portion　of　that　celebrity　which　they　have　since　enjoyed　…　John　Jay；　Hamilton；　and　Madison　…　formed　an　association　with　the　intention　of　explaining　to　the　nation　the　advantages　of　the　measure　which　was　proposed。　　With　this　view　they　published　a　series　of　articles　in　the　shape　of　a　journal；　which　now　form　a　complete　treatise。　　They　entitled　their　journal　〃The　Federalist；〃　a　name　which　has　been　retained　in　the　work。　　〃The　Federalist〃　is　an　excellent　book；　which　ought　to　be　familiar　to　the　statesmen　of　all　countries；　although　it　especially　concerns　America。＇
  Prerogative　Of　The　Federal　Government
  Power　of　declaring　war；　making　peace；　and　levying　general　taxes　vested　in　the　Federal　Government　…　What　part　of　the　internal　policy　of　the　country　it　may　direct　…　The　Government　of　the　Union　in　some　respects　more　central　than　the　King's　Government　in　the　old　French　monarchy。
  The　external　relations　of　a　people　may　be　compared　to　those　of　private　individuals；　and　they　cannot　be　advantageously　maintained　without　the　agency　of　a　single　head　of　a　Government。　　The　exclusive　right　of　making　peace　and　war；　of　concluding　treaties　of　commerce；　of　raising　armies；　and　equipping　fleets；　was　granted　to　the　Union。　*h　The　necessity　of　a　national　Government　was　less　imperiously　felt　in　the　conduct　of　the　internal　policy　of　society；　but　there　are　certain　general　interests　which　can　only　be　attended　to　with　advantage　by　a　general　authority。　　The　Union　was　invested　with　the　power　of　controlling　the　monetary　system；　of　directing　the　post　office；　and　of　opening　the　great　roads　which　were　to　establish　a　communication　between　the　different　parts　of　the　country。　*i　The　independence　of　the　Government　of　each　State　was　formally　recognized　in　its　sphere；　nevertheless；　the　Federal　Government　was　authorized　to　interfere　in　the　internal　affairs　of　the　States　*j　in　a　few　predetermined　cases；　in　which　an　indiscreet　abuse　of　their　independence　might　compromise　the　security　of　the　Union　at　large。　　Thus；　whilst　the　power　of　modifying　and　changing　their　legislation　at　pleasure　was　preserved　in　all　the　republics；　they　were　forbidden　to　enact　ex　post　facto　laws；　or　to　create　a　class　of　nobles　in　their　community。　*k　Lastly；　as　it　was　necessary　that　the　Federal　Government　should　be　able　to　fulfil　its　engagements；　it　was　endowed　with　an　unlimited　power　of　levying　taxes。　*l
  ＇Footnote　h：　See　Constitution；　sect。　8；　〃Federalist；〃　Nos。　41　and　42；　Kent's　〃Commentaries；〃　vol。　i。　p。　207；　Story；　pp。　358…382；　Ibid。　pp。　409…426。＇
  ＇Footnote　i：　Several　other　privileges　of　the　same　kind　exist；　such　as　that　which　empowers　the　Union　to　legislate　on　bankruptcy；　to　grant　patents；　and　other　matters　in　which　its　intervention　is　clearly　necessary。＇
  ＇Footnote　j：　Even　in　these　cases　its　interference　is　indirect。　　The　Union　interferes　by　means　of　the　tribunals；　as　will　be　hereafter　shown。＇
  ＇Footnote　k：　Federal　Constitution；　sect。　10；　art。　I。＇
  ＇Footnote　l：　Constitution；　sects。　8；　9；　and　10；　〃Federalist；〃　Nos。　30…36；　inclusive；　and　41…44；　Kent's　〃Commentaries；〃　vol。　i。　pp。　207　and　381；　Story；　pp。　329　and　514。＇
  In　examining　the　balance　of　power　as　established　by　the　Federal　Constitution；　in　remarking　on　the　one　hand　the　portion　of　sovereignty　which　has　been　reserved　to　the　several　States；　and　on　the　other　the　share　of　power　which　the　Union　has　assumed；　it　is　evident　that　the　Federal　legislators　entertained　the　clearest　and　most　accurate　notions　on　the　nature　of　the　centralization　of　government。　　The　United　States　form　not　only　a　republic；　but　a　confederation；　nevertheless　the　authority　of　the　nation　is　more　central　than　it　was　in　several　of　the　monarchies　of　Europe　when　the　American　Constitution　was　formed。　　Take；　for　instance；　the　two　following　examples。
  Thirteen　supreme　courts　of　justice　existed　in　France；　which；　generally　speaking；　had　the　right　of　interpreting　the　law　without　appeal；　and　those　provinces　which　were　styled　pays　d'etats　were　authorized　to　refuse　their　assent　to　an　impost　which　had　been　levied　by　the　sovereign　who　represented　the　nation。　　In　the　Union　there　is　but　one　tribunal　to　interpret；　as　there　is　one　legislature　to　make　the　laws；　and　an　impost　voted　by　the　representatives　of　the　nation　is　binding　upon　all　the　citizens。　　In　these　two　essential　points；　therefore；　the　Union　exercises　more　central　authority　than　the　French　monarchy　possessed；　although　the　Union　is　only　an　assemblage　of　confederate　republics。
  In　Spain　certain　provinces　had　the　right　of　establishing　a　system　of　custom…house　duties　peculiar　to　themselves；　although　that　privilege　belongs；　by　its　very　nature；　to　the　national　sovereignty。　　In　America　the　Congress　alone　has　the　right　of　regulating　the　commercial　relations　of　the　States。　The　government　of　the　Confederation　is　therefore　more　centralized　in　this　respect　than　the　kingdom　of　Spain。　　It　is　true　that　the　power　of　the　Crown　in　France　or　in　Spain　was　always　able　to　obtain　by　force　whatever　the　Constitution　of　the　country　denied；　and　that　the　ultimate　result　was　consequently　the　same；　but　I　am　here　discussing　the　theory　of　the　Constitution。
  Federal　Powers
  After　having　settled　the　limits　within　which　the　Federal　Government　was　to　act；　the　next　point　was　to　determine　the　powers　which　it　was　to　exert。
  Legislative　Powers　*m
  ＇Footnote　m：　＇In　this　chapter　the　author　points　out　the　essence　of　the　conflict　between　the　seceding　States　and　the　Union　which　caused　the　Civil　War　of　1861。＇＇
  Division　of　the　Legislative　Body　into　two　branches　…　Difference　in　the　manner　of　forming　the　two　Houses　…　The　principle　of　the　independence　of　the　States　predominates　in　the　formation　of　the　Senate　…　The　principle　of　the　sovereignty　of　the　nation　in　the　composition　of　the　House　of　Representatives　…　Singular　effects　of　the　fact　that　a　Constitution　can　only　be　logical　in　the　early　stages　of　a　nation。
  The　plan　which　had　been　laid　down　beforehand　for　the　Constitutions　of　the　several　States　was　followed；　in　many　points；　in　the　organization　of　the　powers　of　the　Union。　　The　Federal　legislature　of　the　Union　was　composed　of　a　Senate　and　a　House　of　Representatives。　　A　spirit　of　conciliation　prescribed　the　observance　of　distinct　princ