nce　of　intellectual　freedom　which　seemed　to　him　to　degrade　administration　and　bring　statesmanship；　learning；　and　literature　to　the　level　of　the　lowest；　are　no　longer　considered。　　The　violence　of　party　spirit　has　been　mitigated；　and　the　judgment　of　the　wise　is　not　subordinated　to　the　prejudices　of　the　ignorant。
  Other　dangers　have　come。　　Equality　of　conditions　no　longer　exists。　Prophets　of　evil　predict　the　downfall　of　democracy；　but　the　student　of　M。　de　Tocqueville　will　find　consolation　and　encouragement　in　the　reflection　that　the　same　spirit　which　has　vanquished　the　perils　of　the　past；　which　he　foresaw；　will　be　equally　prepared　for　the　responsibilities　of　the　present　and　the　future。
  The　last　of　the　four　volumes　of　M。　de　Tocqueville's　work　upon　American　institutions　appeared　in　1840。
  In　1838　he　was　chosen　member　of　the　Academy　of　Moral　and　Political　Sciences。　　In　1839　he　was　elected　to　the　Chamber　of　Deputies。　　He　became　a　member　of　the　French　Academy　in　1841。　　In　1848　he　was　in　the　Assembly；　and　from　June　2nd　to　October　31st　he　was　Minister　of　Foreign　Affairs。　　The　coup　d'etat　of　December　2；　1851　drove　him　from　the　public　service。　　In　1856　he　published　〃The　Old　Regime　and　the　Revolution。〃　He　died　at　Cannes；　April　15；　1859；　at　the　age　of　fifty…four。
  Hon。　John　J。　Ingalls
  Introductory　Chapter
  Amongst　the　novel　objects　that　attracted　my　attention　during　my　stay　in　the　United　States；　nothing　struck　me　more　forcibly　than　the　general　equality　of　conditions。　　I　readily　discovered　the　prodigious　influence　which　this　primary　fact　exercises　on　the　whole　course　of　society；　by　giving　a　certain　direction　to　public　opinion；　and　a　certain　tenor　to　the　laws；　by　imparting　new　maxims　to　the　governing　powers；　and　peculiar　habits　to　the　governed。　　I　speedily　perceived　that　the　influence　of　this　fact　extends　far　beyond　the　political　character　and　the　laws　of　the　country；　and　that　it　has　no　less　empire　over　civil　society　than　over　the　Government；　it　creates　opinions；　engenders　sentiments；　suggests　the　ordinary　practices　of　life；　and　modifies　whatever　it　does　not　produce。　　The　more　I　advanced　in　the　study　of　American　society；　the　more　I　perceived　that　the　equality　of　conditions　is　the　fundamental　fact　from　which　all　others　seem　to　be　derived；　and　the　central　point　at　which　all　my　observations　constantly　terminated。
  I　then　turned　my　thoughts　to　our　own　hemisphere；　where　I　imagined　that　I　discerned　something　analogous　to　the　spectacle　which　the　New　World　presented　to　me。　　I　observed　that　the　equality　of　conditions　is　daily　progressing　towards　those　extreme　limits　which　it　seems　to　have　reached　in　the　United　States；　and　that　the　democracy　which　governs　the　American　communities　appears　to　be　rapidly　rising　into　power　in　Europe。　　I　hence　conceived　the　idea　of　the　book　which　is　now　before　the　reader。
  It　is　evident　to　all　alike　that　a　great　democratic　revolution　is　going　on　amongst　us；　but　there　are　two　opinions　as　to　its　nature　and　consequences。　To　some　it　appears　to　be　a　novel　accident；　which　as　such　may　still　be　checked；　to　others　it　seems　irresistible；　because　it　is　the　most　uniform；　the　most　ancient；　and　the　most　permanent　tendency　which　is　to　be　found　in　history。　　Let　us　recollect　the　situation　of　France　seven　hundred　years　ago；　when　the　territory　was　divided　amongst　a　small　number　of　families；　who　were　the　owners　of　the　soil　and　the　rulers　of　the　inhabitants；　the　right　of　governing　descended　with　the　family　inheritance　from　generation　to　generation；　force　was　the　only　means　by　which　man　could　act　on　man；　and　landed　property　was　the　sole　source　of　power。　　Soon；　however；　the　political　power　of　the　clergy　was　founded；　and　began　to　exert　itself：　the　clergy　opened　its　ranks　to　all　classes；　to　the　poor　and　the　rich；　the　villein　and　the　lord；　equality　penetrated　into　the　Government　through　the　Church；　and　the　being　who　as　a　serf　must　have　vegetated　in　perpetual　bondage　took　his　place　as　a　priest　in　the　midst　of　nobles；　and　not　infrequently　above　the　heads　of　kings。
  The　different　relations　of　men　became　more　complicated　and　more　numerous　as　society　gradually　became　more　stable　and　more　civilized。　　Thence　the　want　of　civil　laws　was　felt；　and　the　order　of　legal　functionaries　soon　rose　from　the　obscurity　of　the　tribunals　and　their　dusty　chambers；　to　appear　at　the　court　of　the　monarch；　by　the　side　of　the　feudal　barons　in　their　ermine　and　their　mail。　　Whilst　the　kings　were　ruining　themselves　by　their　great　enterprises；　and　the　nobles　exhausting　their　resources　by　private　wars；　the　lower　orders　were　enriching　themselves　by　commerce。　　The　influence　of　money　began　to　be　perceptible　in　State　affairs。　　The　transactions　of　business　opened　a　new　road　to　power；　and　the　financier　rose　to　a　station　of　political　influence　in　which　he　was　at　once　flattered　and　despised。　　Gradually　the　spread　of　mental　acquirements；　and　the　increasing　taste　for　literature　and　art；　opened　chances　of　success　to　talent；　science　became　a　means　of　government；　intelligence　led　to　social　power；　and　the　man　of　letters　took　a　part　in　the　affairs　of　the　State。　　The　value　attached　to　the　privileges　of　birth　decreased　in　the　exact　proportion　in　which　new　paths　were　struck　out　to　advancement。　　In　the　eleventh　century　nobility　was　beyond　all　price；　in　the　thirteenth　it　might　be　purchased；　it　was　conferred　for　the　first　time　in　1270；　and　equality　was　thus　introduced　into　the　Government　by　the　aristocracy　itself。
  In　the　course　of　these　seven　hundred　years　it　sometimes　happened　that　in　order　to　resist　the　authority　of　the　Crown；　or　to　diminish　the　power　of　their　rivals；　the　nobles　granted　a　certain　share　of　political　rights　to　the　people。　Or；　more　frequently；　the　king　permitted　the　lower　orders　to　enjoy　a　degree　of　power；　with　the　intention　of　repressing　the　aristocracy。　　In　France　the　kings　have　always　been　the　most　active　and　the　most　constant　of　levellers。　　When　they　were　strong　and　ambitious　they　spared　no　pains　to　raise　the　people　to　the　level　of　the　nobles；　when　they　were　temperate　or　weak　they　allowed　the　people　to　rise　above　themselves。　　Some　assisted　the　democracy　by　their　talents；　others　by　their　vices。　　Louis　XI　and　Louis　XIV　reduced　every　rank　beneath　the　throne　to　the　same　subjection；　Louis　XV　descended；　himself　and　all　his　Court；　into　the　dust。
  As　soon　as　land　was　held　on　any　other　than　a　feudal　tenure；　and　personal　property　began　in　its　turn　to　confer　influence　and　power；　every　improvement　which　was　introduced　in　commerce　or　manufacture　was　a　fresh　element　of　the　equality　of　conditions。　　Henceforward　every　new　discovery；　every　new　want　which　it　engendered；　and　every　new　desire　which　craved　satisfaction；　was　a　step　towards　the　universal　level。　　The　taste　for　luxury；　the　love　of　war；　the　sway　of　fashion；　and　the　most　superficial　as　well　as　the　deepest　passions　of　the　human　heart；　co…operated　to　enrich　the　poor　and　to　impoverish　the　rich。
  From　the　time　when　the　exercise　of　the　intellect　became　the　source　of　strength　and　of　wealth；　it　is　impossible　not　to　consider　every　addition　to　science；　every　fresh　truth；　and　every　new　idea　as　a　germ　of　power　placed　within　the　reach　of　the　people。　　Poetry；　eloquence；　and　memory；　the　grace　of　wit；　the　glow　of　imagination；　the　depth　of　thought；　and　all　the　gifts　which　are　bestowed　by　Providence　with　an　equal　hand；　turned　to　the　advantage　of　the　democracy；　and　even　when　they　were　in　the　possession　of　its　adversaries　they　still　served　its　cause　by　throwing　into　relief　the　natural　greatness　of　man；　its　conquests　spread；　therefore；　with　those　of　civilization　and　knowledge；　and　literature　became　an　arsenal　where　the　poorest　and　the　weakest　could　always　find　weapons　to　their　hand。
  In　perusing　the　pages　of　our　history；　we　shall　scarcely　meet　with　a　single　great　event；　in　the　lapse　of　seven　hundred　years；　which　has　not　turned　to　the　advantage　of　equality。　　The　Crusades　and　the　wars　of　the　English　decimated　the　nobles　and　divided　their　possessions；　the　erection　of　communities　introduced　an　element　of　democratic　liberty　into　the　bosom　of　feudal　monarchy；　the　invention　of　fire…arms　equalized　the　villein　and　the　noble　on　the　field　of　battle；　printing　opened　the　same　resources　to　the　minds　of　all　classes；　the　post　was　organized　so　as　to　bring　the　same　information　to　the　door　of　the　poor　man's　cottage　and　to　the　gate　of　the　palace；　and　Protestantism　proclaimed　that　all　men　are　alike　able　to　find　the　road　to　heaven。　　The　discovery　of　America　offered　a　thousand　new　paths　to　fortune；　and　placed　riches　and　power　within　the　reach　of　the　adventurous　and　the　obscure。　If　we　examine　what　has　happened　in　France　at　intervals　of　fifty　years；　beginning　with　the　eleventh　century；　we　shall　invariably　perceive　that　a　twofold　revolution　has　taken　place　in　the　state　of　society。　　The　noble　has　gone　down　on　the　social　ladder；　and　the　roturier　has　gone　up；　the　one　descends　as　the　other　rises。　　Every　half　century　brings　them　nearer　to　each　other；　and　they　will　very　shortly　meet。
  Nor　is　this　phenomenon　at　all　peculiar　to　France。　　Whithersoever　we　turn　our　eyes　we　shall　witness　the　same　continual　revolution　throughout　the　whole　of　Christendom。　　The　various　occurrences　of　national　existence　have　everywhere　turned　to　the　advantage　of　democracy；　all　men　have　aided　it　by　th