complete　acquittance　upon　paying　only　a　certain　proportion　of
  their　accumulated　debts。　The　law　which　reduced　the　coin　of　all
  denominations　to　a　sixth　part　of　its　former　value；　as　it　enabled
  them　to　pay　their　debts　with　a　sixth　part　of　what　they　really
  owed；　was　equivalent　to　the　most　advantageous　New　Tables。　In
  order　to　satisfy　the　people；　the　rich　and　the　great　were；　upon
  several　different　occasions；　obliged　to　consent　to　laws　both　for
  abolishing　debts；　and　for　introducing　New　Tables；　and　they
  probably　were　induced　to　consent　to　this　law　partly　for　the　same
  reason；　and　partly　that；　by　liberating　the　public　revenue；　they
  might　restore　vigour　to　that　government　of　which　they　themselves
  had　the　principal　direction。　An　operation　of　this　kind　would　at
  once　reduce　a　debt　of　a　hundred　and　twenty…eight　millions　to
  twenty…one　millions　three　hundred　and　thirty…three　thousand　three
  hundred　and　thirty…three　pounds　six　shillings　and　eightpence。　In
  the　course　of　the　second　Punic　war　the　As　was　still　further
  reduced；　first；　from　two　ounces　of　copper　to　one　ounce；　and
  afterwards　from　one　ounce　to　half　an　ounce；　that　is；　to　the
  twenty…fourth　part　of　its　original　value。　By　combining　the　three
  Roman　operations　into　one；　a　debt　of　a　hundred　and　twenty…eight
  millions　of　our　present　money　might　in　this　manner　be　reduced　all
  at　once　to　a　debt　of　five　millions　three　hundred　and　thirty…three
  thousand　three　hundred　and　thirty…three　pounds　six　shillings　and
  eightpence。　Even　the　enormous　debts　of　Great　Britain　might　in
  this　manner　soon　be　paid。
  By　means　of　such　expedients　the　coin　of；　I　believe；　all
  nations　has　been　gradually　reduced　more　and　more　below　its
  original　value；　and　the　same　nominal　sum　has　been　gradually
  brought　to　contain　a　smaller　and　a　smaller　quantity　of　silver。
  Nations　have　sometimes；　for　the　same　purpose；　adulterated
  the　standard　of　their　coin；　that　is；　have　mixed　a　greater
  quantity　of　alloy　in　it。　If　in　the　pound　weight　of　our　silver
  coin；　for　example；　instead　of　eighteen　pennyweight；　according　to
  the　present　standard；　there　was　mixed　eight　ounces　of　alloy；　a
  pound　sterling；　or　twenty　shillings　of　such　coin；　would　be　worth
  little　more　than　six　shillings　and　eightpence　of　our　present
  money。　The　quantity　of　silver　contained　in　six　shillings　and
  eightpence　of　our　present　money　would　thus　be　raised　very　nearly
  to　the　denomination　of　a　pound　sterling。　The　adulteration　of　the
  standard　has　exactly　the　same　effect　with　what　the　French　call　an
  augmentation；　or　a　direct　raising　of　the　denomination　of　the
  coin。
  An　augmentation；　or　a　direct　raising　of　the　coin；　always　is；
  and　from　its　nature　must　be；　an　open　and　avowed　operation。　By
  means　of　it　pieces　of　a　smaller　weight　and　bulk　are　called　by　the
  same　name　which　had　before　been　given　to　pieces　of　a　greater
  weight　and　bulk。　The　adulteration　of　the　standard；　on　the
  contrary；　has　generally　been　a　concealed　operation。　By　means　of
  it　pieces　were　issued　from　the　mint　of　the　same　denominations；
  and；　as　nearly　as　could　be　contrived；　of　the　same　weight；　bulk；
  and　appearance　with　pieces　which　had　been　current　before　of　much
  greater　value。　When　King　John　of　France；　in　order　to　pay　his
  debts；　adulterated　his　coin；　all　the　officers　of　his　mint　were
  sworn　to　secrecy。　Both　operations　are　unjust。　But　a　simple
  augmentation　is　an　injustice　of　open　violence；　whereas　the
  adulteration　is　an　injustice　of　treacherous　fraud。　This　latter
  operation；　therefore；　as　soon　as　it　has　been　discovered；　and　it
  could　never　be　concealed　very　long；　has　always　excited　much
  greater　indignation　than　the　former。　The　coin　after　any
  considerable　augmentation　has　very　seldom　been　brought　back　to
  its　former　weight；　but　after　the　greater　adulterations　it　has
  almost　always　been　brought　back　to　its　former　fineness。　It　has
  scarce　ever　happened　that　the　fury　and　indignation　of　the　people
  could　otherwise　be　appeased。
  In　the　end　of　the　reign　of　Henry　VIII　and　in　the　beginning
  of　that　of　Edward　VI　the　English　coin　was　not　only　raised　in　its
  denomination；　but　adulterated　in　its　standard。　The　like　frauds
  were　practised　in　Scotland　during　the　minority　of　James　VI。　They
  have　occasionally　been　practised　in　most　other　countries。
  That　the　public　revenue　of　Great　Britain　can　never　be
  completely　liberated；　or　even　that　any　considerable　progress　can
  ever　be　made　towards　that　liberation；　while　the　surplus　of　that
  revenue；　or　what　is　over　and　above　defraying　the　annual　expense
  of　the　peace　establishment；　is　so　very　small；　it　seems　altogether
  in　vain　to　expect。　That　liberation；　it　is　evident；　can　never　be
  brought　about　without　either　some　very　considerable　augmentation
  of　the　public　revenue；　or　some　equally　considerable　reduction　of
  the　public　expense。
  A　more　equal　land…tax；　a　more　equal　tax　upon　the　rent　of
  houses；　and　such　alterations　in　the　present　system　of　customs　and
  excise　as　those　which　have　been　mentioned　in　the　foregoing
  chapter　might；　perhaps；　without　increasing　the　burden　of　the
  greater　part　of　the　people；　but　only　distributing　the　weight　of
  it　more　equally　upon　the　whole；　produce　a　considerable
  augmentation　of　revenue。　The　most　sanguine　projector；　however；
  could　scarce　flatter　himself　that　any　augmentation　of　this　kind
  would　be　such　as　could　give　any　reasonable　hopes　either　of
  liberating　the　public　revenue　altogether；　or　even　of　making　such
  progress　towards　that　liberation　in　time　of　peace　as　either　to
  prevent　or　to　compensate　the　further　accumulation　of　the　public
  debt　in　the　next　war。
  By　extending　the　British　system　of　taxation　to　all　the
  different　provinces　of　the　empire　inhabited　by　people　of　either
  British　or　European　extraction；　a　much　greater　augmentation　of
  revenue　might　be　expected。　This；　however；　could　scarce；　perhaps；
  be　done；　consistently　with　the　principles　of　the　British
  constitution；　without　admitting　into　the　British　Parliament；　or
  if　you　will　into　the　states　general　of　the　British　empire；　a　fair
  and　equal　representation　of　all　those　different　provinces；　that
  of　each　province　bearing　the　same　proportion　to　the　produce　of
  its　taxes　as　the　representation　of　Great　Britain　might　bear　to
  the　produce　of　the　taxes　levied　upon　Great　Britain。　The　private
  interest　of　many　powerful　individuals；　the　confirmed　prejudices
  of　great　bodies　of　people　seem；　indeed；　at　present；　to　oppose　to
  so　great　a　change　such　obstacles　as　it　may　be　very　difficult；
  perhaps　altogether　impossible；　to　surmount。　Without；　however；
  pretending　to　determine　whether　such　a　union　be　practicable　or
  impracticable；　it　may　not；　perhaps；　be　improper；　in　a　speculative
  work　of　this　kind；　to　consider　how　far　the　British　system　of
  taxation　might　be　applicable　to　all　the　different　provinces　of
  the　empire；　what　revenue　might　be　expected　from　it　if　so　applied；
  and　in　what　manner　a　general　union　of　this　kind　might　be　likely
  to　affect　the　happiness　and　prosperity　of　the　different　provinces
  comprehended　within　it。　Such　a　speculation　can　at　worst　be
  regarded　but　as　a　new　Utopia；　less　amusing　certainly；　but　not
  more　useless　and　chimerical　than　the　old　one。
  The　land…tax；　the　stamp…duties；　and　the　different　duties　of
  customs　and　excise　constitute　the　four　principal　branches　of　the
  British　taxes。
  Ireland　is　certainly　as　able；　and　our　American　and　West
  Indian　plantations　more　able　to　pay　a　land…tax　than　Great
  Britain。　Where　the　landlord　is　subject　neither　to　tithe　nor
  poor…rate；　he　must　certainly　be　more　able　to　pay　such　a　tax　than
  where　he　is　subject　to　both　those　other　burdens。　The　tithe；　where
  there　is　no　modus；　and　where　it　is　levied　in　kind；　diminishes
  more　what　would　otherwise　be　the　rent　of　the　landlord　than　a
  land…tax　which　really　amounted　to　five　shillings　in　the　pound。
  Such　a　tithe　will　be　found　in　most　cases　to　amount　to　more　than　a
  fourth　part　of　the　real　rent　of　the　land；　or　of　what　remains
  after　replacing　completely　the　capital　of　the　farmer；　together
  with　his　reasonable　profit。　If　all　moduses　and　all　impropriations
  were　taken　away；　the　complete　church　tithe　of　Great　Britain　and
  Ireland　could　not　well　be　estimated　at　less　than　six　or　seven
  millions。　If　there　was　no　tithe　either　in　Great　Britain　or
  Ireland；　the　landlords　could　afford　to　pay　six　or　seven　millions
  additional　land…tax　without　being　more　burdened　than　a　very　great
  part　of　them　are　at　present。　America　pays　no　tithe；　and　could
  therefore　very　well　afford　to　pay　a　land…tax。　The　lands　in
  America　and　the　West　Indies；　indeed；　are　in　general　not　tenanted
  nor　leased　out　to　farmers。　They　could　not　therefore　be　assessed
  according　to　any　rent…roll。　But　neither　were　the　lands　of　Great
  Britain；　in　the　4th　of　William　and　Mary；　assessed　according　to
  any　rent…roll；　but　according　to　a　very　loose　and　inaccurate
  estimation。　The　lands　in　America　might　be　assessed　either　in　the
  same　manner；　or　according　to　an　equitable　valuation　in
  consequence　of　an　accurate　survey　like　that　which　w