bounties　upon　the　exportation　of　home　produce　in　all　cases　in
  which　those　bounties　were　not　in　reality　drawbacks　of　some　duties
  of　excise　which　had　before　been　advanced；　it　cannot　well　be
  doubted　but　that　the　net　revenue　of　customs　might；　after　an
  alteration　of　this　kind；　be　fully　equal　to　what　it　had　ever　been
  before。
  If　by　such　a　change　of　system　the　public　revenue　suffered　no
  loss；　the　trade　and　manufactures　of　the　country　would　certainly
  gain　a　very　considerable　advantage。　The　trade　in　the　commodities
  not　taxed；　by　far　the　greatest　number；　would　be　perfectly　free；
  and　might　be　carried　on　to　and　from　all　parts　of　the　world　with
  every　possible　advantage。　Among　those　commodities　would　be
  comprehended　all　the　necessaries　of　life　and　all　the　materials　of
  manufacture。　So　far　as　the　free　importation　of　the　necessaries　of
  life　reduced　their　average　money　price　in　the　home　market　it
  would　reduce　the　money　price　of　labour；　but　without　reducing　in
  any　respect　its　real　recompense。　The　value　of　money　is　in
  proportion　to　the　quantity　of　the　necessaries　of　life　which　it
  will　purchase。　That　of　the　necessaries　of　life　is　altogether
  independent　of　the　quantity　of　money　which　can　be　had　for　them。
  The　reduction　in　the　money　price　of　labour　would　necessarily　be
  attended　with　a　proportionable　one　in　that　of　all　home
  manufactures；　which　would　thereby　gain　some　advantage　in　all
  foreign　markets。　The　price　of　some　manufactures　would　be　reduced
  in　a　still　greater　proportion　by　the　free　importation　of　the　raw
  materials。　If　raw　silk　could　be　imported　from　China　and　Indostan
  duty　free；　the　silk　manufacturers　in　England　could　greatly
  undersell　those　of　both　France　and　Italy。　There　would　be　no
  occasion　to　prohibit　the　importation　of　foreign　silks　and
  velvets。　The　cheapness　of　their　goods　would　secure　to　our　own
  workmen　not　only　the　possession　of　the　home；　but　a　very　great
  command　of　the　foreign　market。　Even　the　trade　in　the　commodities
  taxed　would　be　carried　on　with　much　more　advantage　than　at
  present。　If　those　commodities　were　delivered　out　of　the　public
  warehouse　for　foreign　exportation；　being　in　this　case　exempted
  from　all　taxes；　the　trade　in　them　would　be　perfectly　free。　The
  carrying　trade　in　all　sorts　of　goods　would　under　this　system
  enjoy　every　possible　advantage。　If　those　commodities　were
  delivered　out　for　home　consumption；　the　importer　not　being
  obliged　to　advance　the　tax　till　he　had　an　opportunity　of　selling
  his　goods；　either　to　some　dealer；　or　to　some　consumer；　he　could
  always　afford　to　sell　them　cheaper　than　if　he　had　been　obliged　to
  advance　it　at　the　moment　of　importation。　Under　the　same　taxes；
  the　foreign　trade　of　consumption　even　in　the　taxed　commodities
  might　in　this　manner　be　carried　on　with　much　more　advantage　than
  it　can　be　at　present。
  It　was　the　object　of　the　famous　excise　scheme　of　Sir　Robert
  Walpole　to　establish；　with　regard　to　wine　and　tobacco；　a　system
  not　very　unlike　that　which　is　here　proposed。　But　though　the　bill
  which　was　then　brought　into　Parliament　comprehended　those　two
  commodities；　only　it　was　generally　supposed　to　be　meant　as　an
  introduction　to　a　more　extensive　scheme　of　the　same　kind；
  faction；　combined　with　the　interest　of　smuggling　merchants；
  raised　so　violent；　though　so　unjust；　a　clamour　against　that　bill；
  that　the　minister　thought　proper　to　drop　it；　and　from　a　dread　of
  exciting　a　clamour　of　the　same　kind；　none　of　his　successors　have
  dared　to　resume　the　project。
  The　duties　upon　foreign　luxuries　imported　for　home
  consumption；　though　they　sometimes　fall　upon　the　poor；　fall
  principally　upon　people　of　middling　or　more　than　middling
  fortune。　Such　are；　for　example；　the　duties　upon　foreign　wines；
  upon　coffee；　chocolate；　tea；　sugar；　etc。
  The　duties　upon　the　cheaper　luxuries　of　home　produce
  destined　for　home　consumption　fall　pretty　equally　upon　people　of
  all　ranks　in　proportion　to　their　respective　expense。　The　poor　pay
  the　duties　upon　malt；　hops；　beer；　and　ale；　upon　their　own
  consumption：　the　rich；　upon　both　their　own　consumption　and　that
  of　their　servants。
  The　whole　consumption　of　the　inferior　ranks　of　people；　or　of
  those　below　the　middling　rank；　it　must　be　observed；　is　in　every
  country　much　greater；　not　only　in　quantity；　but　in　value；　than
  that　of　the　middling　and　of　those　above　the　middling　rank。　The
  whole　expense　of　the　inferior　is　much　greater　than　that　of　the
  superior　ranks。　In　the　first　place；　almost　the　whole　capital　of
  every　country　is　annually　distributed　among　the　inferior　ranks　of
  people　as　the　wages　of　productive　labour。　Secondly；　a　great　part
  of　the　revenue　arising　from　both　the　rent　of　land　and　the　profits
  of　stock　is　annually　distributed　among　the　same　rank　in　the　wages
  and　maintenance　of　menial　servants；　and　other　unproductive
  labourers。　Thirdly；　some　part　of　the　profits　of　stock　belongs　to
  the　same　rank　as　a　revenue　arising　from　the　employment　of　their
  small　capitals。　The　amount　of　the　profits　annually　made　by　small
  shopkeepers；　tradesmen；　and　retailers　of　all　kinds　is　everywhere
  very　considerable；　and　makes　a　very　considerable　portion　of　the
  annual　produce。　Fourthly；　and　lastly；　some　part　even　of　the　rent
  of　land　belongs　to　the　same　rank；　a　considerable　part　of　those
  who　are　somewhat　below　the　middling　rank；　and　a　small　part　even
  to　the　lowest　rank；　common　labourers　sometimes　possessing　in
  property　an　acre　or　two　of　land。　Though　the　expense　of　those
  inferior　ranks　of　people；　therefore；　taking　them　individually；　is
  very　small；　yet　the　whole　mass　of　it；　taking　them　collectively；
  amounts　always　to　by　much　the　largest　portion　of　the　whole
  expense　of　the　society；　what　remains　of　the　annual　produce　of　the
  land　and　labour　of　the　country　for　the　consumption　of　the
  superior　ranks　being　always　much　less；　not　only　in　quantity；　but
  in　value。　The　taxes　upon　expense；　therefore；　which　fall　chiefly
  upon　that　of　the　superior　ranks　of　people；　upon　the　smaller
  portion　of　the　annual　produce；　are　likely　to　be　much　less
  productive　than　either　those　which　fall　indifferently　upon　the
  expense　of　all　ranks；　or　even　those　which　fall　chiefly　upon　that
  of　the　inferior　ranks；　than　either　those　which　fall　indifferently
  upon　the　whole　annual　produce；　or　those　which　fall　chiefly　upon
  the　larger　portion　of　it。　The　excise　upon　the　materials　and
  manufacture　of　home…made　fermented　and　spirituous　liquors　is
  accordingly；　of　all　the　different　taxes　upon　expense；　by　far　the
  most　productive；　and　this　branch　of　the　excise　falls　very　much；
  perhaps　principally；　upon　the　expense　of　the　common　people。　In
  the　year　which　ended　on　the　5th　of　July　1775；　the　gross　produce
  of　this　branch　of　the　excise　amounted　to　L3；341；837　9s。　9d。
  It　must　always　be　remembered；　however；　that　it　is　the
  luxurious　and　not　the　necessary　expense　of　the　inferior　ranks　of
  people　that　ought　ever　to　be　taxed。　The　final　payment　of　any　tax
  upon　their　necessary　expense　would　fall　altogether　upon　the
  superior　ranks　of　people；　upon　the　smaller　portion　of　the　annual
  produce；　and　not　upon　the　greater。　Such　a　tax　must　in　all　cases
  either　raise　the　wages　of　labour；　or　lessen　the　demand　for　it。　It
  could　not　raise　the　wages　of　labour　without　throwing　the　final
  payment　of　the　tax　upon　the　superior　ranks　of　people。　It　could
  not　lessen　the　demand　for　labour　without　lessening　the　annual
  produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　the　country；　the　fund　from
  which　all　taxes　must　be　finally　paid。　Whatever　might　be　the　state
  to　which　a　tax　of　this　kind　reduced　the　demand　for　labour；　it
  must　always　raise　wages　higher　than　they　otherwise　would　be　in
  that　state；　and　the　final　payment　of　this　enhancement　of　wages
  must　in　all　cases　fall　upon　the　superior　ranks　of　people。
  Fermented　liquors　brewed；　and　spirituous　liquors　distilled；
  not　for　sale；　but　for　private　use；　are　not　in　Great　Britain
  liable　to　any　duties　of　excise。　This　exemption；　of　which　the
  object　is　to　save　private　families　from　the　odious　visit　and
  examination　of　the　tax…gatherer；　occasions　the　burden　of　those
  duties　to　fall　frequently　much　lighter　upon　the　rich　than　upon
  the　poor。　It　is　not；　indeed；　very　common　to　distil　for　private
  use；　though　it　is　done　sometimes。　But　in　the　country　many
  middling　and　almost　all　rich　and　great　families　brew　their　own
  beer。　Their　strong　beer；　therefore；　costs　them　eight　shillings　a
  barrel　less　than　it　costs　the　common　brewer；　who　must　have　his
  profit　upon　the　tax　as　well　as　upon　all　the　other　expense　which
  he　advances。　Such　families；　therefore；　must　drink　their　beer　at
  least　nine　or　ten　shillings　a　barrel　cheaper　than　any　liquor　of
  the　same　quality　can　be　drunk　by　the　common　people；　to　whom　it　is
  everywhere　more　convenient　to　buy　their　beer；　by　little　and
  little；　from　the　brewery　or　the　alehouse。　Malt；　in　the　same
  manner；　that　is　made　for　the　use　of　a　private　family　is　not
  liable　to　the　visit　or　examination　of　the　tax…gatherer；　but　in
  this　case　the　family　must　compound　at　seven