AN　INQUIRY　INTO　THE　NATURE　AND　CAUSES　OF　THE　WEALTH　OF　NATIONS
  by　Adam　Smith
  1776
  BOOK　FIVE
  OF　THE　REVENUE　OF　THE　SOVEREIGN　OR　COMMONWEALTH
  CHAPTER　I
  Of　the　Expenses　of　the　Sovereign　or　Commonwealth
  PART　1
  Of　the　Expense　of　Defence
  THE　first　duty　of　the　sovereign；　that　of　protecting　the
  society　from　the　violence　and　invasion　of　other　independent
  societies；　can　be　performed　only　by　means　of　a　military　force。
  But　the　expense　both　of　preparing　this　military　force　in　time　of
  peace；　and　of　employing　it　in　time　of　war；　is　very　different　in
  the　different　states　of　society；　in　the　different　periods　of
  improvement。
  Among　nations　of　hunters；　the　lowest　and　rudest　state　of
  society；　such　as　we　find　it　among　the　native　tribes　of　North
  America；　every　man　is　a　warrior　as　well　as　a　hunter。　When　he　goes
  to　war；　either　to　defend　his　society　or　to　revenge　the　injuries
  which　have　been　done　to　it　by　other　societies；　he　maintains
  himself　by　his　own　labour　in　the　same　manner　as　when　he　lives　at
  home。　His　society；　for　in　this　state　of　things　there　is　properly
  neither　sovereign　nor　commonwealth；　is　at　no　sort　of　expense；
  either　to　prepare　him　for　the　field；　or　to　maintain　him　while　he
  is　in　it。
  Among　nations　of　shepherds；　a　more　advanced　state　of
  society；　such　as　we　find　it　among　the　Tartars　and　Arabs；　every
  man　is；　in　the　same　manner；　a　warrior。　Such　nations　have　commonly
  no　fixed　habitation；　but　live　either　in　tents　or　in　a　sort　of
  covered　waggons　which　are　easily　transported　from　place　to　place。
  The　whole　tribe　or　nation　changes　its　situation　according　to　the
  different　seasons　of　the　year；　as　well　as　according　to　other
  accidents。　When　its　herds　and　flocks　have　consumed　the　forage　of
  one　part　of　the　country；　it　removes　to　another；　and　from　that　to
  a　third。　In　the　dry　season　it　comes　down　to　the　banks　of　the
  rivers；　in　the　wet　season　it　retires　to　the　upper　country。　When
  such　a　nation　goes　to　war；　the　warriors　will　not　trust　their
  herds　and　flocks　to　the　feeble　defence　of　their　old　men；　their
  women　and　children；　and　their　old　men；　their　women　and　children；
  will　not　be　left　behind　without　defence　and　without　subsistence。
  The　whole　nation；　besides；　being　accustomed　to　a　wandering　life；
  even　in　time　of　peace；　easily　takes　the　field　in　time　of　war。
  Whether　it　marches　as　an　army；　or　moves　about　as　a　company　of
  herdsmen；　the　way　of　life　is　nearly　the　same；　though　the　object
  proposed　by　it　be　very　different。　They　all　go　to　war　together；
  therefore；　and　every　one　does　as　well　as　he　can。　Among　the
  Tartars；　even　the　women　have　been　frequently　known　to　engage　in
  battle。　If　they　conquer；　whatever　belongs　to　the　hostile　tribe　is
  the　recompense　of　the　victory。　But　if　they　are　vanquished；　all　is
  lost；　and　not　only　their　herds　and　flocks；　but　their　women　and
  children；　become　the　booty　of　the　conqueror。　Even　the　greater
  part　of　those　who　survive　the　action　are　obliged　to　submit　to　him
  for　the　sake　of　immediate　subsistence。　The　rest　are　commonly
  dissipated　and　dispersed　in　the　desert。
  The　ordinary　life；　the　ordinary　exercises　of　a　Tartar　or
  Arab；　prepare　him　sufficiently　for　war。　Running；　wrestling；
  cudgel…playing；　throwing　the　javelin；　drawing　the　bow；　etc。；　are
  the　common　pastimes　of　those　who　live　in　the　open　air；　and　are
  all　of　them　the　images　of　war。　When　a　Tartar　or　Arab　actually
  goes　to　war；　he　is　maintained　by　his　own　herds　and　flocks　which
  he　carries　with　him　in　the　same　manner　as　in　peace。　His　chief　or
  sovereign；　for　those　nations　have　all　chiefs　or　sovereigns；　is　at
  no　sort　of　expense　in　preparing　him　for　the　field；　and　when　he　is
  in　it　the　chance　of　plunder　is　the　only　pay　which　he　either
  expects　or　requires。
  An　army　of　hunters　can　seldom　exceed　two　or　three　hundred
  men。　The　precarious　subsistence　which　the　chase　affords　could
  seldom　allow　a　greater　number　to　keep　together　for　any
  considerable　time。　An　army　of　shepherds；　on　the　contrary；　may
  sometimes　amount　to　two　or　three　hundred　thousand。　As　long　as
  nothing　stops　their　progress；　as　long　as　they　can　go　on　from　one
  district；　of　which　they　have　consumed　the　forage；　to　another
  which　is　yet　entire；　there　seems　to　be　scarce　any　limit　to　the
  number　who　can　march　on　together。　A　nation　of　hunters　can　never
  be　formidable　to　the　civilised　nations　in　their　neighbourhood。　A
  nation　of　shepherds　may。　Nothing　can　be　more　contemptible　than　an
  Indian　war　in　North　America。　Nothing；　on　the　contrary；　can　be
  more　dreadful　than　Tartar　invasion　has　frequently　been　in　Asia。
  The　judgment　of　Thucydides；　that　both　Europe　and　Asia　could　not
  resist　the　Scythians　united；　has　been　verified　by　the　experience
  of　all　ages。　The　inhabitants　of　the　extensive　but　defenceless
  plains　of　Scythia　or　Tartary　have　been　frequently　united　under
  the　dominion　of　the　chief　of　some　conquering　horde　or　clan；　and
  the　havoc　and　devastation　of　Asia　have　always　signalized　their
  union。　The　inhabitants　of　the　inhospitable　deserts　of　Arabia；　the
  other　great　nation　of　shepherds；　have　never　been　united　but　once；
  under　Mahomet　and　his　immediate　successors。　Their　union；　which
  was　more　the　effect　of　religious　enthusiasm　than　of　conquest；　was
  signalized　in　the　same　manner。　If　the　hunting　nations　of　America
  should　ever　become　shepherds；　their　neighbourhood　would　be　much
  more　dangerous　to　the　European　colonies　than　it　is　at　present。
  In　a　yet　more　advanced　state　of　society；　among　those　nations
  of　husbandmen　who　have　little　foreign　commerce；　and　no　other
  manufactures　but　those　coarse　and　household　ones　which　almost
  every　private　family　prepares　for　its　own　use；　every　man；　in　the
  same　manner；　either　is　a　warrior　or　easily　becomes　such。　They　who
  live　by　agriculture　generally　pass　the　whole　day　in　the　open　air；
  exposed　to　all　the　inclemencies　of　the　seasons。　The　hardiness　of
  their　ordinary　life　prepares　them　for　the　fatigues　of　war；　to
  some　of　which　their　necessary　occupations　bear　a　great　analogy。
  The　necessary　occupation　of　a　ditcher　prepares　him　to　work　in　the
  trenches；　and　to　fortify　a　camp　as　well　as　to　enclose　a　field。
  The　ordinary　pastimes　of　such　husbandmen　are　the　same　as　those　of
  shepherds；　and　are　in　the　same　manner　the　images　of　war。　But　as
  husbandmen　have　less　leisure　than　shepherds；　they　are　not　so
  frequently　employed　in　those　pastimes。　They　are　soldiers；　but
  soldiers　not　quite　so　much　masters　of　their　exercise。　Such　as
  they　are；　however；　it　seldom　costs　the　sovereign　or　commonwealth
  any　expense　to　prepare　them　for　the　field。
  Agriculture；　even　in　its　rudest　and　lowest　state；　supposes　a
  settlement：　some　sort　of　fixed　habitation　which　cannot　be
  abandoned　without　great　loss。　When　a　nation　of　mere　husbandmen；
  therefore；　goes　to　war；　the　whole　people　cannot　take　the　field
  together。　The　old　men；　the　women　and　children；　at　least；　must
  remain　at　home　to　take　care　of　the　habitation。　All　the　men　of　the
  military　age；　however；　may　take　the　field；　and；　in　small　nations
  of　this　kind；　have　frequently　done　so。　In　every　nation　the　men　of
  the　military　age　are　supposed　to　amount　to　about　a　fourth　or　a
  fifth　part　of　the　whole　body　of　the　people。　If　the　campaign；
  should　begin　after　seed…time；　and　end　before　harvest；　both　the
  husbandman　and　his　principal　labourers　can　be　spared　from　the
  farm　without　much　loss。　He　trusts　that　the　work　which　must　be
  done　in　the　meantime　can　be　well　enough　executed　by　the　old　men；
  the　women；　and　the　children。　He　is　not　unwilling；　therefore；　to
  serve　without　pay　during　a　short　campaign；　and　it　frequently
  costs　the　sovereign　or　commonwealth　as　little　to　maintain　him　in
  the　field　as　to　prepare　him　for　it。　The　citizens　of　all　the
  different　states　of　ancient　Greece　seem　to　have　served　in　this
  manner　till　after　the　second　Persian　war；　and　the　people　of
  Peloponnesus　till　after　the　Peloponnesian　war。　The
  Peloponnesians；　Thucydides　observes；　generally　left　the　field　in
  the　summer；　and　returned　home　to　reap　the　harvest。　The　Roman
  people　under　their　kings；　and　during　the　first　ages　of　the
  republic；　served　in　the　same　manner。　It　was　not　till　the　siege　of
  Veii　that　they　who　stayed　at　home　began　to　contribute　something
  towards　maintaining　those　who　went　to　war。　In　the　European
  monarchies；　which　were　founded　upon　the　ruins　of　the　Roman
  empire；　both　before　and　for　some　time　after　the　establishment　of
  what　is　properly　called　the　feudal　law；　the　great　lords；　with　all
  their　immediate　dependents；　used　to　serve　the　crown　at　their　own
  expense。　In　the　field；　in　the　same　manner　as　at　home；　they
  maintained　themselves　by　their　own　revenue；　and　not　by　any
  stipend　or　pay　which　they　received　from　the　king　upon　that
  particular　occasion。
  In　a　more　advanced　state　of　society；　two　different　causes
  contribute　to　render　it　altogether　impossible　that　t