live　in　houses　which　are　more　or　less　tasteful　and　secluded。　They　are
  well　clothed　in　garments　of　both　native　and　foreign　manufacture；　they
  are　a　settled　and　agricultural　people；　they　are　skilful　in　some　of　the
  arts；　specially　in　the　working　of　gold　and　the　damascening　of　krises；
  the　upper　classes　are　to　some　extent　educated；　they　have　a　literature；
  even　though　it　be　an　imported　one；　and　they　have　possessed　for
  centuries　systems　of　government　and　codes　of　land　and　maritime　laws
  which；　in　theory　at　least；　show　a　considerable　degree　of　enlightenment。
  Their　religion；　laws；　customs；　and　morals　are　bound　up　together。　They
  are　strict　Mussulmen；　but　among　the　uneducated　especially　they　mix　up
  their　own　traditions　and　superstitions　with　the　Koran。　The　pilgrimage
  to　Mecca　is　the　universal　object　of　Malay　ambition。　They　practice　relic
  worship；　keep　the　fast　of　Ramadhan；　wear　rosaries　of　beads；　observe　the
  hours　of　prayer　with　their　foreheads　on　the　earth；　provide　for　the
  〃religious　welfare〃　of　their　villages；　circumcise　their　children；　offer
  buffaloes　in　sacrifice　at　the　religious　ceremonies　connected　with
  births　and　marriages；　build　mosques　everywhere；　regard　Mecca　as　the
  holy　city；　and　the　Koran；　as　expounded　by　Arab　teachers；　as　the　rule　of
  faith　and　practice。
  Much　learning　has　been　expended　upon　the　origin　of　Malayan；　but　it　has
  not　been　reliably　traced　beyond　the　ancient　empire　of　Menangkabau　in
  Sumatra。　Mohammedanism　undoubtedly　brought　with　it　a　large　introduction
  of　Arabic　words；　and　the　language　itself　is　written　in　the　Arabic
  character。　It　has　been　estimated　by　that　most　painstaking　and　learned
  scholar；　Mr。　Crawfurd；　that　one　hundred　parts　of　modern　Malayan　are
  composed　of　twenty…seven　parts　of　primitive　Malayan；　fifty　of
  Polynesian；　sixteen　of　Sanskrit；　five　of　Arabic；　and　two　of
  adventitious　words；　the　Arabic　predominating　in　all　literature　relating
  to　religion。　Malay　is　the　lingua　franca　of　the　Straits　Settlements；　and
  in　the　seaports　a　number　of　Portuguese　and　Dutch　words　have　been
  incorporated　with　it。
  The　Malays　can　hardly　be　said　to　have　an　indigenous　literature；　for　it
  is　almost　entirely　derived　from　Persia；　Siam；　Arabia；　and　Java。　Arabic
  is　their　sacred　language。　　They　have；　however；　a　celebrated　historic
  Malay　romance　called　the　Hang　Tuah；　parts　of　which　are　frequently
  recited　in　their　villages　after　sunset　prayers　by　their　village
  raconteurs；　and　some　Arabic　and　Hindu　romances　stand　high　in　popular
  favor。　Their　historians　all　wrote　after　the　Mohammedan　era；　and　their
  histories　are　said　to　contain　little　that　is　trustworthy；　each　State
  also　has　a　local　history　preserved　with　superstitious　care　and　kept
  from　common　eyes；　but　these　contain　little　but　the　genealogies　of　their
  chiefs。　They　have　one　Malay　historical　composition；　dated　1021　A。H。；
  which　treats　of　the　founding　of　the　Malay　empire　of　Menangkabau　in
  Sumatra；　and　comes　down　to　the　founding　of　the　empire　of　Johore　and　the
  conquest　of　Malacca　by　Albuquerque　in　1511。　This　has　been　thought
  worthy　of　translation　by　Dr。　Leyden。
  Their　ethical　books　consist　mainly　of　axioms　principally　derived　from
  Arabic　and　Persian　sources。　Their　religious　works　are　borrowed　from　the
  Arabs。　The　Koran；　of　course；　stands　first；　then　comes　a　collection　of
  prayers；　and　next　a　guide　to　the　religious　duties　required　from
  Mussulmen。　　Then　there　are　books　containing　selections　from　Arabic
  religious　works；　with　learned　commentaries　upon　them　by　a　Malay　Hadji。
  It　is　to　be　noticed　that　the　Malays　present　a　compact　front　against
  Christianity；　and　have　successfully　resisted　all　missionary　enterprise。
  They　have　a　good　deal　of　poetry；　principally　of　an　amorous　kind；
  characterized；　it　is　said；　by　great　simplicity；　natural　and　pleasing
  metaphor；　and　extremely　soft　and　melodious　rhyme。　They　sing　their　poems
  to　certain　popular　airs；　which　are　committed　to　memory。　Malay　music；
  though　plaintive　and　less　excruciating　than　Chinese　and　Japanese；　is
  very　monotonous　and　dirge…like；　and　not　pleasing　to　a　European　ear。　The
  pentatonic　scale　is　employed。　The　violin　stands　first　among　musical
  instruments　in　their　estimation。　　They　have　also　the　guitar；　the
  flageolet；　the　aeolian　flute；　a　bamboo　in　which　holes　are　cut；　which
  produce　musical　sounds　when　acted　upon　by　the　wind；　and　both　metallic
  and　wooden　gongs。
  They　have　no　written　system　of　common　arithmetic；　and　are　totally
  unacquainted　with　its　higher　branches。　Their　numerals　above　one
  thousand　are　borrowed　from　the　Hindus；　and　their　manner　of　counting　is
  the　same　as　that　of　the　Ainos　of　Yezo。
  Their　theory　of　medicine　is　derived　from　Arabia；　and　abounds　in　mystery
  and　superstition。　They　regard　man　as　composed　of　four　elements　and　four
  essences；　and　assimilate　his　constitution　and　passions　to　the　twelve
  signs　of　the　zodiac；　the　seven　planets；　etc。；　exaggerating　the
  mysterious　sympathy　between　man　and　external　nature。　The　successful
  practice　of　the　hakim　or　doctor　must　be　based　on　the　principle　of
  〃preserving　the　balance　of　power〃　among　the　four　elements；　which　is
  chiefly　effected　by　moderation　in　eating。
  They　know　nothing　of　astronomy；　except　of　some　meagre　ideas　derived
  through　the　Arabs　from　the　Ptolemaic　system；　and　Mr。　Newbold；　after
  most　painstaking　research；　failed　to　discover　any　regular　treatise　on
  astronomy；　though　Arabic　and　Hindu　tracts　on　interpretations　of　dreams；
  horoscopes；　spells；　propitious　and　unpropitious　moments；　auguries；
  talismans；　love　philters；　medicinal　magic　and　recipes　for　the
  destruction　of　people　at　a　distance；　are　numerous。　They　acknowledge　the
  solar　year；　but　adopt　the　lunar；　and　reckon　the　months　in　three
  different　ways；　dividing　them；　however；　into　weeks　of　seven　days；
  marking　them　by　the　return　of　the　Mohammedan　Sabbath。　They　suppose　the
  world　to　be　an　oval　body　revolving　on　its　axis　four　times　within　a
  year；　with　the　sun；　a　circular　body　of　fire；　moving　round　it。　The
  majority　of　the　people　still　believe　that　eclipses　are　caused　by　the
  sun　or　moon　being　devoured　by　a　serpent；　and　they　lament　loudly　during
  their　continuance。　The　popular　modes　of　measuring　distance　are
  ingenious；　but；　to　a　stranger　at　least；　misleading。　Thus　Mr。　Daly；　in
  attempting　to　reach　the　interior　States；　received　these　replies　to　his
  inquiries　about　distance〃As　far　as　a　gunshot　may　be　heard　from　this
  particular　hill；〃　〃If　you　wash　your　head　before　starting　it　will　not　be
  dry　before　you　reach　the　place；〃　etc。　They　also　measure　distances　by
  the　day's　walk；　and　by　the　number　of　times　it　is　necessary　to　chew
  betel　between　two　places。　The　hours　are　denoted　by　terms　not　literally
  accurate。　Cockcrowing　is　daybreak；　1　P。M。；　and　midnight；　9　A。M。；　Lepas
  Baja；　is　the　time　when　the　buffaloes；　which　cannot　work　when　the　sun　is
  high；　are　relieved　from　the　plough；　Tetabawe　is　6　P。M。；　the　word
  signifying　the　cry　of　a　bird　which　is　silent　till　after　sunset。　The
  Malay　day　begins　at　sunset。
  They　are　still　maritime　in　their　habits；　and　very　competent　practical
  sailors　and　boat…builders；　but　though　for　centuries　they　divided　with
  the　Arabs　the　carrying　trade　between　Eastern　and　Western　Asia；　and
  though　a　mongrel　Malay　is　the　nautical　language　of　nearly　all　the
  peoples　from　New　Guinea　to　the　Tenasserim　coast；　the　Malays　knew　little
  of　the　science　of　navigation。　They　timed　their　voyages　by　the　constant
  monsoons；　and　in　sailing　from　island　to　island　coasted　the　Asiatic
  shores；　trusting；　when　for　a　short　time　out　of　sight　of　land；　not　to
  the　compass；　though　they　were　acquainted　with　it；　but　to　known　rocks；
  glimpses　of　headlands；　the　direction　of　the　wind；　and　their　observation
  of　the　Pleiades。
  They　have　no　knowledge　of　geography；　architecture；　painting；　sculpture；
  or　even　mechanics；　they　no　longer　make　translations　from　the　Arabic　or
  create　fiction；　and　the　old　translations　of　works　on　law；　ethics；　and
  science　are　now　scarcely　studied。　Education　among　them　is　at　a　very　low
  ebb；　but　the　State　of　Kedah　is　beginning　to　awake　to　its　advantages。
  Where　schools　exist　the　instruction　consists　mainly　in　teaching　the
  children　to　repeat；　in　a　tongue　which　they　do　not　understand；　certain
  passages　from　the　Koran　and　some　set　prayers。
  As　to　law；　Sir　Stamford　Raffles　observed　in　a　formal　despatch；　〃Nothing
  has　tended　more　decidedly　to　the　deterioration　of　the　Malay　character
  than　the　want　of　a　well…defined　and　generally　acknowledged　system　of
  law。〃　There　are　numerous　legal　compilations；　however；　and　nearly　every
  State　has　a　code　of　its　own　to　a　certain　extent；　there　are　maritime　and
  land　codes；　besides　〃customs〃　bad　and　good；　which　override　the　written
  law；　while　in　Perak；　Selangor；　and　Sungei　Ujong　an　ill　understood
  adaptation　of　some　portions　of　British　law　further　complicates　matters。
  〃The　glorious　uncertainty〃　of　law　is　nowhere　more　fully　exemplified
  than　on　this　Peninsula。　It　is　from　the　Golden　Island；　the　parent　Empire
  of　Menangkabau；　that　the　Malays　profess　to　derive　both　their　criminal
  and　civil　law；　their　tribal　system；　their　rules　for　the　division　of
  land　by　boundary　marks；　and　the　manner　of　government　as　adapted　for
  sovereigns　and　their　ministers。　The　existence　of　the　various　legal
  compilations　has　led　to　much　controversy　and　even　bloodshed　b