The　Higher　Learning　In　America：　A　Memorandum　On　the　Conduct　of
  Universities　By　Business　Men
  by　Thorstein　Veblen
  1918
  PREFACE
  It　is　something　more　than　a　dozen　years　since　the　following
  observations　on　American　academic　life　were　first　assembled　in
  written　form。　In　the　meantime　changes　of　one　kind　and　another
  have　occurred；　although　not　such　as　to　alter　the　course　of　policy
  which　has　guided　American　universities。　Lines　of　policy　which
  were　once　considered　to　be　tentative　and　provisional　have　since
  then　passed　into　settled　usage。　This　altered　and　more　stable
  state　of　the　subject　matter　has　permitted　a　revision　to　avoid
  detailed　documentation　of　matters　that　have　become　commonplace；
  with　some　resulting　economy　of　space　and　argument。　But；
  unhappily；　revision　and　abridgment　carries　its　own　penalties；　in
  the　way　of　a　more　fragmentary　presentation　and　a　more　repetitious
  conduct　of　the　argument；　so　that　it　becomes　necessary　to　bespeak
  a　degree　of　indulgence　on　that　ground。
  Unhappily；　this　is　not　all　that　seems　necessary　to　plead　in
  extenuation　of　recurrent　infirmities。　Circumstances；　chiefly　of　a
  personal　incidence；　have　repeatedly　delayed　publication　beyond
  what　the　run　of　events　at　large　would　have　indicated　as　a
  propitious　date；　and　the　same　circumstances　have　also　enjoined　a
  severer　and　more　repressive　curtailment　in　the　available　data。　It
  may　not　be　out　of　place；　therefore；　to　indicate　in　the　most
  summary　fashion　what　has　been　the　nature　of　these　fortuitous
  hindrances。
  In　its　earlier　formulation；　the　argument　necessarily　drew
  largely　on　first…hand　observation　of　the　conduct　of　affairs　at
  Chicago；　under　the　administration　of　its　first　president。　As　is
  well　known；　the　first　president's　share　in　the　management　of　the
  university　was　intimate；　masterful　and　pervasive；　in　a　very　high
  degree；　so　much　so　that　no　secure　line　of　demarcation　could　be
  drawn　between　the　administration's　policy　and　the　president's
  personal　ruling。　It　is　true；　salient　features　of　academic　policy
  which　many　observers　at　that　time　were　inclined　to　credit　to　the
  proclivities　of　Chicago's　first　president；　have　in　the　later
  course　of　things　proved　to　belong　to　the　impersonal　essence　of
  the　case；　having　been　approved　by　the　members　of　the　craft；　and
  so　having　passed　into　general　usage　without　abatement。　Yet；　at
  the　time；　the　share　of　the　Great　Pioneer　in　reshaping　American
  academic　policy　could　scarcely　have　been　handled　in　a　detached
  way；　as　an　impersonal　phenomenon　of　the　unfolding　historical
  sequence。　The　personal　note　was；　in　fact；　very　greatly　in
  evidence。
  And　just　then；　presently；　that　Strong　Man's　life　was　brought
  to　a　close。　So　that　it　would　unavoidably　have　seemed　a　breach　of
  decorum　to　let　these　observations　seek　a　hearing　at　that　time；
  even　after　any　practicable　revision　and　excision　which　filial
  piety　would　enjoin。　Under　the　rule　of　Nihil　nisi　bonum；　there
  seemed　nothing　for　it　but　a　large　reticence。
  But　swiftly；　with　the　passage　of　years；　events　proved　that
  much　of　what　had　appeared　to　be　personal　to　the　Great　Pioneer　was
  in　reality　intrinsic　to　the　historical　movement；　so　that　the
  innovations　presently　lost　their　personal　colour；　and　so　went
  impersonally　to　augment　the　grand　total　of　human　achievement　at
  large。　Meanwhile　general　interest　in　the　topic　had　nowise　abated。
  Indeed；　discussion　of　the　academic　situation　was　running　high　and
  in　large　volume；　and　much　of　it　was　taking　such　a　turn
  controversial；　reproachful；　hortatory；　acrimonious　　that
  anything　in　the　way　of　a　temperate　survey　should　presumably　have
  been　altogether　timely。
  But　fortuitous　circumstances　again　intervened；　such　as　made
  it　seem　the　part　of　insight　and　sobriety　again　to　defer
  publication；　until　the　colour　of　an　irrelevant　personal　equation
  should　again　have　had　time　to　fade　into　the　background。　With　the
  further　passage　of　time；　it　is　hoped　that　no　fortuitous　shadow
  will　now　cloud　the　issue　in　any　such　degree　as　to　detract　at　all
  sensibly　from　whatever　value　this　account　of　events　and　their
  causes　may　have。
  This　allusion　to　incidents　which　have　no　material　bearing　on
  the　inquiry　may　tolerantly　be　allowed；　as　going　to　account　for　a
  sparing　use　of　local　information　and；　it　is　hoped；　to　extenuate　a
  degree　of　reserve　and　reticence　touching　divers　intimate　details
  of　executive　policy。
  It　goes　without　saying　that　the　many　books；　papers　and
  addresses　brought　out　on　the　academic　situation　have　had　their
  share　in　shaping　the　essay。　More　particularly　have　these　various
  expressions　of　opinion　and　concern　made　it　possible　to　take　many
  things　for　granted；　as　matter　of　common　notoriety；　that　would
  have　appeared　to　require　documentation　a　dozen　or　fifteen　years
  ago；　as　lying　at　that　time　still　in　the　field　of　surmise　and
  forecast。　Much；　perhaps　the　greater　bulk；　of　the　printed　matter
  issued　on　this　head　in　the　interval　has；　it　is　true；　been　of　a
  hortatory　or　eloquently　optimistic　nature；　and　may　therefore　be
  left　on　one　side。　But　the　academic　situation　has　also　been
  receiving　some　considerable　attention　with　a　view　to　getting　an
  insight　into　what　is　going　forward。　One　and　another　of　these
  writers　to　whom　the　present　essay　is　in　debt　will　be　fond
  referred　to　by　name　in　the　pages　which　more　particularly　lean　on
  their　support；　and　the　like　is　true　for　various　utterances　by　men
  in　authority　that　have　been　drawn　on　for　illustrative
  expressions。　But　a　narrow　scrutiny　would　doubtless　make　it　appear
  that　the　unacknowledged　indebtedness　greatly　exceeds　what　so　is
  accredited　and　accounted　for。　That　such　is　the　case　must　not　be
  taken　as　showing　intentional　neglect　of　the　due　courtesies。
  March　1916。
  In　the　course　of　the　past　two　years；　while　the　manuscript　has
  been　lying　in　wait　for　the　printer；　a　new　situation　has　been
  forcing　itself　on　the　attention　of　men　who　continue　to　take　an
  interest　in　the　universities。　On　this　provocation　a　few
  paragraphs　have　been　added；　at　the　end　of　the　introductory
  chapter。　Otherwise　there　appears　to　be　no　call　for　a　change　in
  the　general　argument；　and　it　has　not　been　disturbed　since　the
  earlier　date；　which　is　accordingly　left　as　it　stands。
  June　1918。
  CHAPTER　ONE
  Introductory：　The　Place　of　the　University　in　Modern　Life
  I
  In　any　known　civilization　there　will　be　found　something　in
  the　way　of　esoteric　knowledge。　This　body　of　knowledge　will　vary
  characteristically　from　one　culture　to　another；　differing　both　in
  content　and　in　respect　of　the　canons　of　truth　and　reality　relied
  on　by　its　adepts。　But　there　is　this　common　trait　running　through
  all　civilizations；　as　touches　this　range　of　esoteric　knowledge；
  that　it　is　in　all　cases　held；　more　or　less　closely；　in　the
  keeping　of　a　select　body　of　adepts　or　specialists　　scientists；
  scholars；　savants；　clerks；　priests；　shamans；　medicinemen
  whatever　designation　may　best　fit　the　given　case。
  In　the　apprehension　of　the　given　society　within　which　any
  such　body　of　knowledge　is　found　it　will　also　be　found　that　the
  knowledge　in　question　is　rated　as　an　article　of　great　intrinsic
  value；　in　some　way　a　matter　of　more　substantial　consequence　than
  any　or　all　of　the　material　achievements　or　possessions　of　the
  community。　It　may　take　shape　as　a　system　of　magic　or　of　religious
  beliefs；　of　mythology；　theology；　philosophy　or　science。　But
  whatever　shape　it　falls　into　in　the　given　case；　it　makes　up　the
  substantial　core　of　the　civilization　in　which　it　is　found；　and　it
  is　felt　to　give　character　and　distinction　to　that　civilization。
  In　the　apprehension　of　the　group　in　whose　life　and　esteem　it
  lives　and　takes　effect；　this　esoteric　knowledge　is　taken　to
  embody　a　systematization　of　fundamental　and　eternal　truth；
  although　it　is　evident　to　any　outsider　that　it　will　take　its
  character　and　its　scope　and　method　from　the　habits　of　life　of　the
  group；　from　the　institutions　with　which　it　is　bound　in　a　web　of
  give　and　take。　Such　is　manifestly　the　case　in　all　the　historic
  phases　of　civilization；　as　well　as　in　all　those　contemporary
  cultures　that　are　sufficiently　remote　from　our　everyday　interests
  to　admit　of　their　being　seen　in　adequate　perspective。　A　passably
  dispassionate　inquiry　into　the　place　which　modern　learning　holds
  in　mode