；　when　the　voice　is　used　under　any　strong　emotion；　it　tends　to　assume；　through　the　principle　of　association；　a　musical　character。　We　can　plainly　perceive；　with　some　of　the　lower　animals；　that　the　males　employ　their　voices　to　please　the　females；　and　that　they　themselves　take　pleasure　in　their　own　vocal　utterances；　but　why　particular　sounds　are　uttered；　and　why　these　give　pleasure　cannot　at　present　be　explained。
  ＇3＇　‘The　Descent　of　Man；'　1870；　vol。　　ii。　　p。　　332。　　The　words　quoted　are　from　Professor　Owen。　　It　has　lately　been　shown　that　some　quadrupeds　much　lower　in　the　scale　than　monkeys；　namely　Rodents；　are　able　to　produce　correct　musical　tones：　see　the　account　of　a　singing　Hesperomys；　by　the　Rev。　S。　Lockwood；　in　the　‘American　Naturalist；'　vol。　　v。　　December；　1871；　p。　　761。
  That　the　pitch　of　the　voice　bears　some　relation　to　certain　states　of　feeling　is　tolerably　clear。　　A　person　gently　complaining　of　ill…treatment；　or　slightly　suffering；　almost　always　speaks　in　a　high…pitched　voice。　Dogs；　when　a　little　impatient；　often　make　a　high　piping　note　through　their　noses；　which　at　once　strikes　us　as　plaintive；＇4＇　but　how　difficult　it　is　to　know　whether　the　sound　is　essentially　plaintive；　or　only　appears　so　in　this　particular　case；　from　our　having　learnt　by　experience　what　it　means！　　Rengger；　states＇5＇　that　the　monkeys　（_Cebus　azaroe_）；　which　he　kept　in　Paraguay；　expressed　astonishment　by　a　half…piping；　half…snarling　noise；　anger　or　impatience；　by　repeating　the　sound　_hu　hu_　in　a　deeper；　grunting　voice；　and　fright　or　pain；　by　shrill　screams。　　On　the　other　hand；　with　mankind；　deep　groans　and　high　piercing　screams　equally　express　an　agony　of　pain。　Laughter　maybe　either　high　or　low；　so　that；　with　adult　men；　as　Haller　long　ago　remarked；＇6＇　the　sound　partakes　of　the　character　of　the　vowels　（as　pronounced　in　German）　_O_　and　_A_；　whilst　with　children　and　women；　it　has　more　of　the　character　of　_E_　and　_I_；　and　these　latter　vowel…sounds　naturally　have；　as　Helmholtz　has　shown；　a　higher　pitch　than　the　former；　yet　both　tones　of　laughter　equally　express　enjoyment　or　amusement。
  In　considering　the　mode　in　which　vocal　utterances　express　emotion；　we　are　naturally　led　to　inquire　into　the　cause　of　what　is　called　〃expression〃　in　music。　　Upon　this　point　Mr。　Litchfield；　who　has　long　attended　to　the　subject　of　music；　has　been　so　kind　as　to　give　me　the　following　remarks：〃The　question；　what　is　the　essence　of　musical　‘expression'　involves　a　number　of　obscure　points；　which；　so　far　as　I　am　aware；　are　as　yet　unsolved　enigmas。　　Up　to　a　certain　point；　however；　any　law　which　is　found　to　hold　as　to　the　expression　of　the　emotions　by　simple　sounds　must　apply　to　the　more　developed　mode　of　expression　in　song；　which　may　be　taken　as　the　primary　type　of　all　music。　A　great　part　of　the　emotional　effect　of　a　song　depends　on　the　character　of　the　action　by　which　the　sounds　are　produced。　In　songs；　for　instance；　which　express　great　vehemence　of　passion；　the　effect　often　chiefly　depends　on　the　forcible　utterance　of　some　one　or　two　characteristic　passages　which　demand　great　exertion　of　vocal　force；　and　it　will　be　frequently　noticed　that　a　song　of　this　character　fails　of　its　proper　effect　when　sung　by　a　voice　of　sufficient　power　and　range　to　give　the　characteristic　passages　without　much　exertion。　This　is；　no　doubt；　the　secret　of　the　loss　of　effect　so　often　produced　by　the　transposition　of　a　song　from　one　key　to　another。　The　effect　is　thus　seen　to　depend　not　merely　on　the　actual　sounds；　but　also　in　part　on　the　nature　of　the　action　which　produces　the　sounds。　Indeed　it　is　obvious　that　whenever　we　feel　the　‘expression'　of　a　song　to　be　due　to　its　quickness　or　slowness　of　movement　to　smoothness　of　flow；　loudness　of　utterance；　and　so　onwe　are；　in　fact；　interpreting　the　muscular　actions　which　produce　sound；　in　the　same　way　in　which　we　interpret　muscular　action　generally。　But　this　leaves　unexplained　the　more　subtle　and　more　specific　effect　which　we　call　the　MUSICAL　expression　of　the　song　the　delight　given　by　its　melody；　or　even　by　the　separate　sounds　which　make　up　the　melody。　　This　is　an　effect　indefinable　in　language　one　which；　so　far　as　I　am　aware；　no　one　has　been　able　to　analyse；　and　which　the　ingenious　speculation　of　Mr。　Herbert　Spencer　as　to　the　origin　of　music　leaves　quite　unexplained。　　For　it　is　certain　that　the　MELODIC　effect　of　a　series　of　sounds　does　not　depend　in　the　least　on　their　loudness　or　softness；　or　on　their　ABSOLUTE　pitch。　A　tune　is　always　the　same　tune；　whether　it　is　sung　loudly　or　softly；　by　a　child　or　a　man；　whether　it　is　played　on　a　flute　or　on　a　trombone。　The　purely　musical　effect　of　any　sound　depends　on　its　place　in　what　is　technically　called　a　‘scale；'　the　same　sound　producing　absolutely　different　effects　on　the　ear；　according　as　it　is　heard　in　connection　with　one　or　another　series　of　sounds。
  ＇4＇　Mr。　Tylor　（‘Primitive　Culture；'　1871；　vol。　　i。　　p。　　166）；　in　his　discussion　on　this　subject；　alludes　to　the　whining　of　the　dog。
  ＇5＇　‘Naturgeschichte　der　Saugethiere　von　Paraguay；'　1830；　s。　　46。
  ＇6＇　Quoted　by　Gratiolet；　‘De　la　Physionomie；'　1865；　p。　　115。
  〃It　is　on　this　RELATIVE　association　of　the　sounds　that　all　the　essentially　characteristic　effects　which　are　summed　up　in　the　phrase　‘musical　expression；'　depend。　　But　why　certain　associations　of　sounds　have　such…and…such　effects；　is　a　problem　which　yet　remains　to　be　solved。　　These　effects　must　indeed；　in　some　way　or　other；　be　connected　with　the　well…known　arithmetical　relations　between　the　rates　of　vibration　of　the　sounds　which　form　a　musical　scale。　And　it　is　possiblebut　this　is　merely　a　suggestionthat　the　greater　or　less　mechanical　facility　with　which　the　vibrating　apparatus　of　the　human　larynx　passes　from　one　state　of　vibration　to　another；　may　have　been　a　primary　cause　of　the　greater　or　less　pleasure　produced　by　various　sequences　of　sounds。〃
  But　leaving　aside　these　complex　questions　and　confining　ourselves　to　the　simpler　sounds；　we　can；　at　least；　see　some　reasons　for　the　association　of　certain　kinds　of　sounds　with　certain　states　of　mind。　A　scream；　for　instance；　uttered　by　a　young　animal；　or　by　one　of　the　members　of　a　community；　as　a　call　for　assistance；　will　naturally　be　loud；　prolonged；　and　high；　so　as　to　penetrate　to　a　distance。　For　Helmholtz　has　shown＇7＇　that；　owing　to　the　shape　of　the　internal　cavity　of　the　human　ear　and　its　consequent　power　of　resonance；　high　notes　produce　a　particularly　strong　impression。　　When　male　animals　utter　sounds　in　order　to　please　the　females；　they　would　naturally　employ　those　which　are　sweet　to　the　ears　of　the　species；　and　it　appears　that　the　same　sounds　are　often　pleasing　to　widely　different　animals；　owing　to　the　similarity　of　their　nervous　systems；　as　we　ourselves　perceive　in　the　singing　of　birds　and　even　in　the　chirping　of　certain　tree…frogs　giving　us　pleasure。　On　the　other　hand；　sounds　produced　in　order　to　strike　terror　into　an　enemy；　would　naturally　be　harsh　or　displeasing。
  Whether　the　principle　of　antithesis　has　come　into　play　with　sounds；　as　might　perhaps　have　been　expected；　is　doubtful。　The　interrupted；　laughing　or　tittering　sounds　made　by　man　and　by　various　kinds　of　monkeys　when　pleased；　are　as　different　as　possible　from　the　prolonged　screams　of　these　animals　when　distressed。　The　deep　grunt　of　satisfaction　uttered　by　a　pig；　when　pleased　with　its　food；　is　widely　different　from　its　harsh　scream　of　pain　or　terror。　But　with　the　dog；　as　lately　remarked；　the　bark　of　anger　and　that　of　joy　are　sounds　which　by　no　means　stand　in　opposition　to　each　other；　and　so　it　is　in　some　other　cases。
  There　is　another　obscure　point；　namely；　whether　the　sounds　which　are　produced　under　various　states　of　the　mind　determine　the　shape　of　the　mouth；　or　whether　its　shape　is　not　determined　by　independent　causes；　and　the　sound　thus　modified。　　When　young　infants　cry　they　open　their　mouths　widely；　and　this；　no　doubt；　is　necessary　for　pouring　forth　a　full　volume　of　sound；　but　the　mouth　then　assumes；　from　a　quite　distinct　cause；　an　almost　quadrangular　shape；　depending；　as　will　hereafter　be　explained；　on　the　firm　closing　of　the　eyelids；　and　consequent　drawing　up　of　the　upper　lip。　How　far　this　square　shape　of　the　mouth　modifies　the　wailing　or　crying　sound；　I　am　not　prepared　to　say；　but　we　know　from　the　researches　of　Helmholtz　and　others　that　the　form　of　the　cavity　of　the　mouth　and　lips　determines　the　nature　and　pitch　of　the　vowel　sounds　which　are　produced。
  ＇7＇　‘Theorie　Physiologique　de　la　Musique；'　Paris；　1868；　P。　146。　Helmholtz　has　also　fully　discussed　in　this　profound　work　the　relation　of　the　form　of　the　cavity　of　the　mouth　to　the　production　of　vowel…sounds。
  It　will　also　be　shown　in　a　future　chapter　that；　under　the　feeling　of　contempt　or　disgust；　there　is　a　tendency；　from　intelligible　causes；　to　blow　out　of　the　mouth　or　nostrils；　and　this　produces　sounds　like　pooh　or　pish。　　When　any　one　is　startled　or　suddenly　astonished；　there　is　an　instantaneous　tendency；　likewise　from　an　intelligible　cause；　namely；　to　be　ready　for　prolonged　exertion；　to　open　the　mouth　widely；　so　as　to　draw　a　deep　and　rapid　inspiration。　　When　the　next　full　expiration　follows；　the　mouth　is　slightly　closed；　and　the　lips；　from　causes　hereafter　to　be　discussed；　are　somewhat　protruded；　and　this　form　of　the　mouth；　if　the　voice　be