＇2＇　Mr。　Tylor　gives　an　account　of　the　Cistercian　gesture…language　in　his　‘Early　History　of　Mankind'　（2nd　edit。　　1870；　p。　　40）；　and　makes　some　remarks　on　the　principle　of　opposition　in　gestures。
  ＇3＇　See　on　this　subject　Dr。　W。　R。　Scott's　interesting　work；　‘The　Deaf　and　Dumb；'　2nd　edit。　　1870；　p。　　12。　　He　says；　〃This　contracting　of　natural　gestures　into　much　shorter　gestures　than　the　natural　expression　requires；　is　very　common　amongst　the　deaf　and　dumb。　This　contracted　gesture　is　frequently　so　shortened　as　nearly　to　lose　all　semblance　of　the　natural　one；　but　to　the　deaf　and　dumb　who　use　it；　it　still　has　the　force　of　the　original　expression。〃
  Many　signs；　moreover；　which　plainly　stand　in　opposition　to　each　other；　appear　to　have　had　on　both　sides　a　significant　origin。　This　seems　to　hold　good　with　the　signs　used　by　the　deal　and　dumb　for　light　and　darkness；　for　strength　and　weakness；　&c。　In　a　future　chapter　I　shall　endeavour　to　show　that　the　opposite　gestures　of　affirmation　and　negation；　namely；　vertically　nodding　and　laterally　shaking　the　head；　have　both　probably　had　a　natural　beginning。　The　waving　of　the　hand　from　right　to　left；　which　is　used　as　a　negative　by　some　savages；　may　have　been　invented　in　imitation　of　shaking　the　head；　but　whether　the　opposite　movement　of　waving　the　hand　in　a　straight　line　from　the　face；　which　is　used　in　affirmation；　has　arisen　through　antithesis　or　in　some　quite　distinct　manner；　is　doubtful。
  If　we　now　turn　to　the　gestures　which　are　innate　or　common　to　all　the　individuals　of　the　same　species；　and　which　come　under　the　present　head　of　antithesis；　it　is　extremely　doubtful；　whether　any　of　them　were　at　first　deliberately　invented　and　consciously　performed。　With　mankind　the　best　instance　of　a　gesture　standing　in　direct　opposition　to　other　movements；　naturally　assumed　under　an　opposite　frame　of　mind；　is　that　of　shrugging　the　shoulders。　　This　expresses　impotence　or　an　apology；something　which　cannot　be　done；　or　cannot　be　avoided。　The　gesture　is　sometimes　used　consciously　and　voluntarily；　but　it　is　extremely　improbable　that　it　was　at　first　deliberately　invented；　and　afterwards　fixed　by　habit；　for　not　only　do　young　children　sometimes　shrug　their　shoulders　under　the　above　states　of　mind；　but　the　movement　is　accompanied；　as　will　be　shown　in　a　future　chapter；　by　various　subordinate　movements；　which　not　one　man　in　a　thousand　is　aware　of；　unless　he　has　specially　attended　to　the　subject。
  Dogs　when　approaching　a　strange　dog；　may　find　it　useful　to　show　by　their　movements　that　they　are　friendly；　and　do　not　wish　to　fight。　　When　two　young　dogs　in　play　are　growling　and　biting　each　other's　faces　and　legs；　it　is　obvious　that　they　mutually　understand　each　other's　gestures　and　manners。　There　seems；　indeed；　some　degree　of　instinctive　knowledge　in　puppies　and　kittens；　that　they　must　not　use　their　sharp　little　teeth　or　claws　too　freely　in　their　play；　though　this　sometimes　happens　and　a　squeal　is　the　result；　otherwise　they　would　often　injure　each　other's　eyes。　When　my　terrier　bites　my　hand　in　play；　often　snarling　at　the　same　time；　if　he　bites　too　hard　and　I　say　GENTLY；　GENTLY；　he　goes　on　biting；　but　answers　me　by　a　few　wags　of　the　tail；　which　seems　to　say　〃Never　mind；　it　is　all　fun。〃　　Although　dogs　do　thus　express；　and　may　wish　to　express；　to　other　dogs　and　to　man；　that　they　are　in　a　friendly　state　of　mind；　it　is　incredible　that　they　could　ever　have　deliberately　thought　of　drawing　back　and　depressing　their　ears；　instead　of　holding　them　erect；of　lowering　and　wagging　their　tails；　instead　of　keeping　them　stiff　and　upright；　&c。；　because　they　knew　that　these　movements　stood　in　direct　opposition　to　those　assumed　under　an　opposite　and　savage　frame　of　mind。
  Again；　when　a　cat；　or　rather　when　some　early　progenitor　of　the　species；　from　feeling　affectionate　first　slightly　arched　its　back；　held　its　tail　perpendicularly　upwards　and　pricked　its　ears；　can　it　be　believed　that　the　animal　consciously　wished　thus　to　show　that　its　frame　of　mind　was　directly　the　reverse　of　that；　when　from　being　ready　to　fight　or　to　spring　on　its　prey；　it　assumed　a　crouching　attitude；　curled　its　tail　from　side　to　side　and　depressed　its　ears？　Even　still　less　can　I　believe　that　my　dog　voluntarily　put　on　his　dejected　attitude　and　〃_hot…house　face_；〃　which　formed　so　complete　a　contrast　to　his　previous　cheerful　attitude　and　whole　bearing。　It　cannot　be　supposed　that　he　knew　that　I　should　understand　his　expression；　and　that　he　could　thus　soften　my　heart　and　make　me　give　up　visiting　the　hot…house。
  Hence　for　the　development　of　the　movements　which　come　under　the　present　head；　some　other　principle；　distinct　from　the　will　and　consciousness；　must　have　intervened。　　This　principle　appears　to　be　that　every　movement　which　we　have　voluntarily　performed　throughout　our　lives　has　required　the　action　of　certain　muscles；　and　when　we　have　performed　a　directly　opposite　movement；　an　opposite　set　of　muscles　has　been　habitually　brought　into　play；　as　in　turning　to　the　right　or　to　the　left；　in　pushing　away　or　pulling　an　object　towards　us；　and　in　lifting　or　lowering　a　weight。　So　strongly　are　our　intentions　and　movements　associated　together；　that　if　we　eagerly　wish　an　object　to　move　in　any　direction；　we　can　hardly　avoid　moving　our　bodies　in　the　same　direction；　although　we　may　be　perfectly　aware　that　this　can　have　no　influence。　A　good　illustration　of　this　fact　has　already　been　given　in　the　Introduction；　namely；　in　the　grotesque　movements　of　a　young　and　eager　billiard…player；　whilst　watching　the　course　of　his　ball。　A　man　or　child　in　a　passion；　if　he　tells　any　one　in　a　loud　voice　to　begone；　generally　moves　his　arm　as　if　to　push　him　away；　although　the　offender　may　not　be　standing　near；　and　although　there　may　be　not　the　least　need　to　explain　by　a　gesture　what　is　meant。　On　the　other　hand；　if　we　eagerly　desire　some　one　to　approach　us　closely；　we　act　as　if　pulling　him　towards　us；　and　so　in　innumerable　other　instances。
  As　the　performance　of　ordinary　movements　of　an　opposite　kind；　under　opposite　impulses　of　the　will；　has　become　habitual　in　us　and　in　the　lower　animals；　so　when　actions　of　one　kind　have　become　firmly　associated　with　any　sensation　or　emotion；　it　appears　natural　that　actions　of　a　directly　opposite　kind；　though　of　no　use；　should　be　unconsciously　performed　through　habit　and　association；　under　the　influence　of　a　directly　opposite　sensation　or　emotion。　On　this　principle　alone　can　I　understand　how　the　gestures　and　expressions　which　come　under　the　present　head　of　antithesis　have　originated。　If　indeed　they　are　serviceable　to　man　or　to　any　other　animal；　in　aid　of　inarticulate　cries　or　language；　they　will　likewise　be　voluntarily　employed；　and　the　habit　will　thus　be　strengthened。　But　whether　or　not　of　service　as　a　means　of　communication；　the　tendency　to　perform　opposite　movements　under　opposite　sensations　or　emotions　would；　if　we　may　judge　by　analogy；　become　hereditary　through　long　practice；　and　there　cannot　be　a　doubt　that　several　expressive　movements　due　to　the　principle　of　antithesis　are　inherited。
  CHAPTER　III。
  GENERAL　PRINCIPLES　OF　EXPRESSION_concluded_。
  The　principle　of　direct　action　of　the　excited　nervous　system　on　the　body；　independently　of　the　will　and　in　part　of　habit　Change　of　colour　in　the　hairTrembling　of　the　muscles　Modified　secretionsPerspirationExpression　of　extreme　pain　Of　rage；　great　joy；　and　terrorContrast　between　the　emotions　which　cause　and　do　not　cause　expressive　movementsExciting　and　depressing　states　of　the　mindSummary。
  WE　now　come　to　our　third　Principle；　namely；　that　certain　actions　which　we　recognize　as　expressive　of　certain　states　of　the　mind；　are　the　direct　result　of　the　constitution　of　the　nervous　system；　and　have　been　from　the　first　independent　of　the　will；　and；　to　a　large　extent；　of　habit。　When　the　sensorium　is　strongly　excited　nerve…force　is　generated　in　excess；　and　is　transmitted　in　certain　directions；　dependent　on　the　connection　of　the　nerve…cells；　and；　as　far　as　the　muscular　system　is　concerned；　on　the　nature　of　the　movements　which　have　been　habitually　practised。　Or　the　supply　of　nerve…force　may；　as　it　appears；　be　interrupted。　Of　course　every　movement　which　we　make　is　determined　by　the　constitution　of　the　nervous　system；　but　actions　performed　in　obedience　to　the　will；　or　through　habit；　or　through　the　principle　of　antithesis；　are　here　as　far　as　possible　excluded。　　Our　present　subject　is　very　obscure；　but；　from　its　importance；　must　be　discussed　at　some　little　length；　and　it　is　always　advisable　to　perceive　clearly　our　ignorance。
  The　most　striking　case；　though　a　rare　and　abnormal　one；　which　can　be　adduced　of　the　direct　influence　of　the　nervous　system；　when　strongly　affected；　on　the　body；　is　the　loss　of　colour　in　the　hair；　which　has　occasionally　been　observed　after　extreme　terror　or　grief。　One　authentic　instance　has　been　recorded；　in　the　case　of　a　man　brought　out　for　execution　in　India；　in　which　the　change　of　colour　was　so　rapid　that　it　was　perceptible　to　the　eye。＇1＇
  Another　good　case　is　that　of　the　trembling　of　the　muscles；　which　is　common　to　man　and　to　many；　or　most；　of　the　lower　animals。　Trembling　is　of　no　service；　often　of　much　disservice；　and　cannot　have　been　at　first　acquired　through　the　will；　and　then　rendered　habitual　in　association　with　any　em