all　parts　of　Europe。　His　little　volume　contains　the
  replies　which　Meerman　received。　The　scholars　who
  remitted　the　result　of　their　investigations　were　unable
  to　distinguish　between　what　they　estimated　as
  cotton　or　linen　rags。　They　did；　however；　establish
  the　fact　that　paper　made　of　linen　rags　existed　before
  1308；　and　some　of　them　even　sought　to　give　the
  honor　of　the　invention　to　Germany。　They　also　asserted
  that　the　most　ancient　English　specimen　of
  such　a　paper　belonged　to　the　year　1342。
  The　transformation　of　paper　made　from　every　conceivable
  fibrous　material　into　what　is　commonly
  known　as　〃linen〃　or　true　paper　was　of　slow　growth
  until　after　the　invention　of　printing。　Following　that
  great　event　it　is　surprising；　how；　in　so　short　a　period；
  the　manufacturers　of　paper　improved　its　quality　and
  the　degree　of　excellence　which　it　later　attained。
  They　imitated　the　old　vellum　so　closely　that　it　was
  even　called　vellum　and　is　so　known　to　this　day。
  This　class　of　paper　was　employed　both　for　writing
  and　printing　purposes　and　has　never　been　excelled；
  surpassing　any　like　productions　of　modern　times。
  A　curious　custom　came　into　vogue　during　the
  early　infancy　of　the　〃linen〃　paper　industry；　which
  is　of　so　much　interest　and　possesses　so　curious　a
  history　as　to　be　well　worth　mentioning。　It　is　the
  water　mark　as　it　is　commonly　but　erroneously　termed
  in　connection　with　paper　manufacture。
  Its　origin　dates　back　to　the　thirteenth　century；
  though　the　monuments　indicating　its　use　before　the
  time　of　printing　are　but　few　in　number。
  The　real　employment　of　the　water　mark　may　be
  said　to　have　commenced　at　the　time　when　it　was
  a　custom　of　the　first　printers　to　omit　their　names
  from　their　works。　Also；　it　is　to　be　considered　that　at
  this　period　comparatively　few　people　could　either
  read　or　write　and　therefore　pictures；　designs　or　other
  marks　were　employed　to　enable　them　to　distinguish
  the　paper　of　one　manufacturer　from　another。　These
  marks　as　they　became　common　naturally　gave　their
  names　to　the　different　sorts　of　paper。
  The　earliest　known　water　mark　on　linen　paper
  represented　a　picture　of　a　tower　and　was　of　the　date
  of　1293。　The　next　known　water　mark　which　can　be
  designated　is　a　ram's　head　and　is　found　in　a　book　of
  accounts　belonging　to　an　official　of　Bordeaux　which
  was　then　subject　to　England。　It　is　dated　1330。
  In　the　fifteenth　century　there　were　no　distinctions
  in　the　quality　of　paper　used　for　manuscripts　or　for
  books。　In　the　Mentz　Bible　of　1462　are　to　be　found
  no　less　than　three　sorts　of　paper。　Of　this　Bible；　the
  water　mark　in　some　sheets　is　a　bull's　head　simply；
  and　in　others　a　bull's　head　from　whose　forehead　rises
  a　long　line；　at　the　end　of　which　is　a　cross。　In　other
  sheets　the　water　mark　is　a　bunch　of　grapes。
  In　1498　the　water　mark　of　paper　consisted　of　an
  eight　pointed　star　within　a　double　circle。　The　design
  of　an　open　hand　with　a　star　at　the　top　which
  was　in　use　as　early　as　1530；　probably　gave　the　name
  to　what　is　still　called　hand　paper。
  It　appears　that　even　so　high　a　personage　as　Henry
  VIII　of　England　in　1540　utilized　the　water　mark　in
  order　to　show　his　contempt　for　and　animosity　to
  Pope　Paul　III；　with　whom　he　had　then　quarreled；
  gave　orders　for　the　preparation　of　paper；　the　water
  mark　of　which　was　a　hog　with　a　miter：　this　he　used
  for　his　private　correspondence。
  A　little　later；　about　the　middle　of　the　sixteenth
  century；　the　favorite　paper　mark　was　the　jug　or　pot；
  from　which　would　appear　to　have　originated　the　term
  pot　paper。　Still　another　belonging　to　this　period
  was　the　device　of　a　glove。
  At　the　beginning　of　the　seventeenth　century；　the
  device　was　a　fool's　cap　and　which　has　continued　by
  name　as　the　particular　size　which　we　now　designate
  fool's　cap。
  The　water　mark　has　continued　to　increase　in　popularity
  and　to…day　may　be　found　in　almost　any　kind　of
  paper；　either　in　the　shape　of　designs；　figures；　numbers
  or　names。
  The　circumstance　of　the　water　mark　has　at　various
  times　been　the　means　of　detecting　frauds；　forgeries
  and　impositions　in　our　courts　of　law　and　elsewhere。
  The　following　is　introduced　as　a　whimsical　example
  of　such　detections　and　is　said　to　have　occurred　in　the
  fifteenth　century；　and　is　related　by　Beloe；　London；
  1807：
  〃The　monks　of　a　certain　monastery　at　Messina
  exhibited　to　a　visitor　with　great　triumph；　a　letter
  which　they　claimed　had　been　written　in　ink　by　the
  Virgin　Mary　with　her　own　hand；　not　on　the　ancient
  papyrus；　but　on　paper　made　of　rags。　The　visitor
  to　whom　it　was　shown　observed　with　affected
  solemnity；　that　the　letter　involved　also　a　miracle
  because　the　paper　on　which　it　was　written　could
  not　have　been　in　existence　until　over　a　thousand
  years　after　her　death。〃
  An　interesting　example　of　the　use　of　water　marks
  on　paper　for　fraudulent　purposes　is　to　be　found　in　a
  pamphlet　entitled　〃Ireland's　Confessions。〃　This　person；
  a　son　of　Samuel　Ireland；　who　was　a　distinguished
  draughtsman　and　engraver；　about　the　end　of　the
  eighteenth　century　fabricated　a　pretended　Shakespeare
  MSS。；　which　as　a　literary　forgery　was　the
  most　remarkable　of　its　time。　Previous　to　his　confessions
  it　had　been　accepted　by　the　Shakespearean
  scholars　as　unquestionably　the　work　of　the　immortal
  bard。　The　following　is　a　citation　from　his　Confessions：
  〃Being　thus　urged　forward　to　the　production　of
  more　manuscripts；　it　became　necessary　that　I
  should　posses；　a　sufficient　quantity　of　old　paper　to
  enable　me　to　proceed；　in　consequence　of　which　I
  applied　to　a　book…seller　named　Verey；　in　Great
  May's　buildings；　St。　Martin's　Lane；　who；　for　the
  sum　of　five　shillings；　suffered　me　to　take　from　all
  the　folio　and　quarto　volumes　in　his　shop　the　fly
  leaves　which　they　contained。　By　this　means　I　was
  amply　stored　with　that　commoditynor　did　I　fear
  any　mention　of　the　circumstance　by　Mr。　Verey；
  whose　quiet；　unsuspecting　disposition；　I　was　well
  convinced；　would　never　lead　him　to　make　the　transaction
  public；　in　addition　to　which；　he　was　not
  likely　even　to　know　anything　concerning　the　supposed
  Shakespearean　discovery　by　myself；　and　even
  if　he　had；　I　do　not　imagine　that　my　purchase　of
  the　old　paper　in　question　would　have　excited　in
  him　the　smallest　degree　of　suspicion。　As　I　was
  fully　aware；　from　the　variety　of　water…marks；　which
  are　in　existence　at　the　present　day；　that　they　must
  have　constantly　been　altered　since　the　period　of
  Elizabeth　and　being　for　some　time　wholly　unacquainted
  with　the　water…marks　of　that　age；　I　very
  carefully　produced　my　first　specimens　of　the
  writing　on　such　sheets　of　old　paper　as　had　no
  marks　whatever。　Having　heard　it　frequently　stated
  that　the　appearance　of　such　marks　on　the　papers
  would　have　greatly　tended　to　establish　their　validity；
  I　listened　attentively　to　every　remark　which
  was　made　upon　the　subject；　and　from　thence　I　at
  length　gleaned　the　intelligence　that　a　jug　was　the
  prevalent　water…mark　of　the　reign　of　Elizabeth；　in
  consequence　of　which　I　inspected　all　the　sheets　of
  old　paper　then　in　my　possession；　and　having　selected
  such　as　had　the　jug　upon　them；　I　produced　the
  succeeding　manuscripts　upon　these；　being　careful；
  however；　to　mingle　with　them　a　certain　number　of
  blank　leaves；　that　the　production　on　a　sudden　of　so
  many　water…marks　might　not　excite　suspicion　in
  the　breasts　of　those　persons　who　were　most　conversant
  with　the　manuscripts。〃
  Fuller；　writing　in　1662；　characterizes　the　paper　of
  his　day：
  〃Paper　participates　in　some　sort　of　the　character
  of　the　country　which　makes　it；　the　Venetian
  being　neat；　subtle；　and　court…like；　the　French
  light；　slight；　and　slender；　and　the　Dutch　thick；
  corpulent；　and　gross；　sticking　up　the　ink　with　the
  sponginess　thereof。　And　he　complains　of　the
  'vast　sums　of　money　expended　in　our　land　for
  paper　out　of　Italy；　France；　and　Germany；　which
  might　be　lessened　were　it　made　in　our　nation。'　〃
  Ulman　Strother　in　1390　started　his　paper　mill　at
  Nuremberg　in　Bavaria　which　was　the　first　paper
  mill　known　to　have　been　established　in　Germany；　and
  is　said　to　have　been　the　only　one　in　Europe　then
  manufacturing　paper　from　linen　rags。
  Among　the　privy　expenses　of　Henry　VII　of　the
  year　1498　appears　the　following　entry：　〃A　reward
  given　to　the　paper　mill；　16s。　8d。〃　This　is　probably
  the　paper　mill　mentioned　by　Wynkin　de　Worde；　the
  father　of　English　typography。　It　was　located　at
  Hertford；　and　the　water　mark　he　employed　was　a　star
  within　a　double　circle。
  The　manufacture　of　paper　in　England　previous　to
  the　revolution　of　1688　was　an　industry　of　very　small
  proportions；　most　of　the　paper　being　imported　from
  Holland。
  The　first　paper　mill　established　in　America　was　by
  William　Rittenhouse　who　emigrated　from　Holland
  and　settled　in　Germantown；　Pa。；　in　1690。　At　Roxborough；
  near　Philadelphia；　on　a　stream　afterwards
  called　Paper　Mill　run；　which　empties　into　the　Wissahicken
  river；　wa