that　〃Laymen；　to　whom　it　matters　not　whether
  they　look　at　a　book　turned　wrong　side　upwards　or
  spread　before　them　in　natural　order；　are　altogether
  unworthy　of　any　communion　with　books。〃
  It　is　stated　by　Mr。　Knight；　in　his　〃Life　of　Caxton：〃
  〃We　have　abundant　evidence；　whatever　be　the
  scarcity　of　books　as　compared　with　the　growth　of
  scholarship；　that　the　ecclesiastics　laboured　most
  diligently　to　multiply　books　for　their　own　establishments。
  In　every　great　abbey　there　was　a　room
  called　the　Scriptorium；　where　boys　and　novices　were
  constantly　employed　in　multiplying　the　service…
  books　of　the　choir；　and　the　less　valuable　books
  for　the　library；　whilst　the　monks　themselves　laboured
  in　their　cells　upon　bibles　and　missals。　Equal
  pains　were　taken　in　providing　books　for　those　who
  received　a　liberal　education　in　collegiate　establishments。〃
  Warton　says：
  〃At　the　foundation　of　Winchester　College；　one
  or　more　transcribers　were　hired　and　employed　by
  the　founder　to　make　books　for　the　library。　They
  transcribed　and　took　their　food　within　the　college；
  as　appears　by　computation　of　expenses　on　their
  account　now　remaining。　But　there　are　many　indications
  that　even　kings　and　nobles　had　not　the　advantage
  of　scholars　by　profession；　and；　possessing
  few　books　of　their　own；　had　sometimes　to　borrow
  of　their　more　favoured　subjects。〃
  We　learn　from　another　source　that　the　great　not
  only　procured　books　by　purchase；　but　employed　transcribers
  to　make　them　for　their　libraries。　The　manuscript
  expense　account　of　Sir　John　Howard；　afterwards
  Duke　of　Norfolk；　shows　in　1467；　Thomas　Lympnor；
  that　is　Thomas　the　Limner　of　Bury；　was　paid　the　sum
  of　fifty　shillings　and　two　pence　for　a　book　which　he
  had　transcribed　and　ornamented；　including　the　vellum
  and　binding。　The　limner's　bill　is　made　up　of　a　number
  of　items；　〃for　whole　vignettes；　and　half…vignettes；
  and　capital　letters；　and　flourishing　and　plain　writing。〃
  These　transcribers　and　limners　worked　principally
  upon　parchment　and　vellum；　for　the　use　of　paper　was
  by　no　means　extensive　until　the　invention　of　the　art
  of　printing。　Some　of　the　old　manuscripts　contain
  drawings　representing　a　copier　or　transcriber　at　work；
  where　the　monk　is　represented　as　provided　with　a
  singular　and　tolerably　complete　set　of　apparatus　to
  aid　him　in　his　work。　The　desk　for　containing　the
  sheet　or　skin　on　which　he　is　writing；　the　clasp　to　keep
  this　sheet　flat；　the　inkstand；　the　pen；　and　the　knife；
  the　manuscript　from　which　the　copy　is　being　made；
  the　desk　for　containing　that　manuscript；　and　the
  weight　for　keeping　it　in　its　place；all　are　shown；　with
  a　clearness　which；　despite　of　bad　perspective；　renders
  them　quite　intelligible。
  Of　the　two　substances；　parchment　and　vellum；　before
  the　invention　of　paper；　another　word　or　two　may　be
  said。　Parchment　is　made　from　the　skin　of　sheep　or
  lambs；　vellum；　from　that　of　very　young　calves　（sometimes
  unborn　ones）；　but　the　process　of　preparing　is
  pretty　much　the　same　in　both　cases。　When　the　hair
  or　wool　has　been　removed；　the　skin　is　steeped　in　lime
  water；　and　then　stretched　on　a　square　frame　in　a　light
  manner。　While　so　stretched；　it　is　scraped　on　the
  flesh　side　with　a　blunt　iron；　wetted　with　a　moist　rag；
  covered　with　pounded　chalk；　and　rubbed　well　with
  pumice　stone。　After　a　time；　these　operations　are
  repeated；　but　without　the　use　of　chalk；　the　skin　is
  then　turned；　and　scraped　on　the　hair　side　once　only；
  the　flesh　side　is　then　scraped　once　more；　and　again
  rubbed　over　with　chalk；　which　is　brushed　off　with　a
  piece　of　lambskin　retaining　the　wool。　All　this　is
  done　by　the　skinner；　who　allows　the　skin　to　dry　on　a
  frame；　and　then　cuts　it　out　and　sends　it　to　the　parchment
  maker；　who　repeats　the　operation　with　a　sharper
  tool；　using　a　sack　stuffed　with　flocks　（wool　or　hair）　to
  lay　the　skin　upon；　instead　of　stretching　it　on　a　frame。
  Respecting　the　quality；　value；　and　preparation　of
  parchment　in　past　ages；　it　is　stated　in　the　〃Penny
  Cyclopaedia〃　that　parchment　from　the　seventh　to　the
  tenth　century　was　〃white　and　good；　and　at　the
  earliest　of　these　periods　it　appears　to　have　nearly
  superseded　papyrus；　which　was　brittle　and　more
  perishable。　A　very　few　books　of　the　seventh　century
  have　leaves　of　parchment　and　papyrus　mixed；　that
  the　former　costly　material　might　strengthen　and　support
  the　friable　paper。　About　the　eleventh　century
  it　grew　worse；　and　a　dirty　colored　parchment　is
  evidence　of　a　want　of　antiquity。　This　may　possibly
  arise　from　the　circumstances　that　writers　of　this　time
  prepared　their　own　parchment；　and　they　were　probably
  not　so　skilled　as　manufacturers。　A　curious
  passage　from　a　sermon　of　Hildebert；　Archbishop　of
  Tours；　who　was　born　in　1054；　is　a　voucher　for　this
  fact。　The　sermon　is　on　the　〃Book　of　Life；〃　which
  he　recommends　his　hearers　to　obtain：
  'Do　you　know　what　a　writer　does？　He　first
  cleanses　his　parchment　from　the　grease；　and　takes
  off　the　principal　part　of　the　dirt；　then　he　entirely
  rubs　off　the　hair　and　fibres　with　pumice　stone；　if
  he　did　not　do　so；　the　letters　written　upon　it　would
  not　be　good；　nor　would　they　last　long。　He　then
  rules　lines　that　the　writing　may　be　straight。　All
  these　things　you　ought　to　do；　if　you　wish　to　possess
  the　book　which　I　have　been　displaying　to　you。'
  At　this　time　parchment　was　a　very　costly　material。
  We　find　it　mentioned　that　Gui；　Count　of　Nevers；
  having　sent　a　valuable　present　of　plate　to　the　Chartreux
  of　Paris；　the　unostentatious　monks　returned　it
  with　a　request　that　he　would　send　them　parchment
  instead。〃
  CHAPTER　XXX。
  MODERN　INK　BACKGROUNDS　（TRUE　PAPER）。
  WHEN　IT　WAS　THAT　TRUE　PAPER　WAS　INVENTEDCITATIONS
  FROM　MUNSELL　ABOUT　CHINESE　AND　OTHER
  ANCIENT　PAPERA　SHORT　CHRONOLOGY　FROM　THE
  SAME　AUTHORLINEN　PAPER　IN　USE　IN　THE　TWELFTH
  CENTURYBOMBYCINE　PAPERDEVELOPMENTS　OF
  THE　MICROSCOPEMETHODS　EMPLOYED　IN　ASCERTAINING
  ORIGIN　OF　LINEN　PAPER　BY　MEERMANSOME
  OBSERVATIONS　RELATIVE　TO　THE　EVOLUTION　OF　PAPER
  RAPID　IMPROVEMENT　IN　QUALITY　AFTER　INVENTION
  OF　PRINTINGCURIOUS　CUSTOMS　IN　THE　USE　OF　THE
  WATER　MARKNO　DISTINCTIONS　IN　QUALITY　OF　PAPER
  USED　FOR　MSS。　OR　OTHER　BOOKSANECDOTES　AND
  OBSERVATIONS　ABOUT　THE　WATER　MARKITS　VALUE
  IN　DETECTING　FRAUDSINTERESTING　ANECDOTE　OF
  ITS　USE　IN　FABRICATING　A　FRAUDFULLER'S　CHARACTERIZATION
  OF　THE　PAPERS　OF　DIFFERENT　COUNTRIESWHEN
  THE　FIRST　PAPER　MILL　WAS　ESTABLISHED
  IN　EUROPE　FOR　THE　MANUFACTURE　OF　LINEN
  PAPERDATE　OF　THE　ESTABLISHMENT　OF　THE　FIRST
  PAPER　MILL　IN　AMERICAWHO　FIRST　SUGGESTED
  WOOD　AS　A　MATERIAL　FOR　MAKING　PAPERSOME
  NAMES　OF　AUTHORS　ON　THE　SUBJECT　OF　PAPERSTORY
  OF　RAG　PAPER　INSTRUCTIVE　AS　WELL　AS　INTERESTING。
  WHEN　it　was　that　the　great　change　occurred　and
  true　paper　made　of　fibrous　matter　or　rags　reduced　to
  a　pulp　in　water　was　invented　has　been　a　subject　of
  considerable　thought　and　investigation。　Munsell；　in
  his　〃Chronology　of　Paper　and　Paper…Making；〃　credits
  it　to　the　Chinese；　and　estimates　its　date　to　be
  included　in　the　first　century　of　the　Christian　era。　He
  observes：
  〃The　Chinese　paper　is　commonly　supposed　to
  be　made　of　silk；　but　this　is　a　mistake。　Silk　by
  itself　cannot　be　reduced　to　a　pulp　suitable　for　making
  paper。　Refuse　silk　is　said　to　be　occasionally
  used　with　other　ingredients；　but　the　greater　part
  of　the　Chinese　paper　is　made　from　the　inner　bark
  of　the　bamboo　and　mulberry　tree；　called　by　them
  the　paper　tree；　hempen　rags；　etc。　The　latter　are
  prepared　for　paper　by　being　cut　and　well　washed
  in　tanks。　They　are　then　bleached　and　dried；　in
  twelve　days　they　are　converted　into　a　pulp；　which
  is　then　made　into　balls　of　about　four　pounds
  weight。　These　are　afterwards　saturated　with
  water；　and　made　into　paper　on　a　frame　of　fine
  reeds；　and　are　dried　by　being　pressed　under　large
  stones。　A　second　drying　operation　is　performed
  by　plastering　the　sheets　on　the　walls　of　a　room。
  The　sheets　are　then　coated　with　gum　size；　and
  polished　with　stones。　They　also　make　paper　from
  cotton　and　linen　rags；　and　a　coarse　yellow　sort
  from　rice　straw；　which　is　used　for　wrapping。　They
  are　enabled　to　make　sheets　of　a　large　size；　the
  mould　on　which　the　pulp　is　made　into　paper　being
  sometimes　ten　or　twelve　feet　long　and　very　wide；
  and　managed　by　means　of　Pulleys。
  〃The　Japanese　prepare　paper　from　the　mulberry
  as　follows：　in　the　month　of　December　the　twigs
  are　cut　into　lengths　not　exceeding　thirty　inches　and
  put　together　in　bundles。　These　fagots　are　then
  placed　upright　in　a　large　vessel　containing　alkaline
  ley；　and　boiled　till　the　bark　shrinks　so　as　to　allow
  about　a　half　an　inch　of　the　wood　to　appear　free　at
  the　top。　After　they　are　thus　boiled　they　are　exposed
  to　a　cool　atmosphere；　and　laid　away　for
  future　use。　When　a　sufficient　quantity　has　been
  thus　collected；　it　is　soaked　in　water　three　or　four
  days；　when　a　blackish　skin　which　covered　it　is
  scraped　off。　At　the　same　time　also　the　stronger
  bark　which　is　of　a　fu