for　them　except　in　localities　where　the　law
  COMPELS　their　employment；　is　only　little。
  Interesting　deductions　can　be　made　from　the　accompanying
  brief　sketches　of　the　leading　ink　manufacturers
  of　the　world。
  The　〃Arnold〃　brand　of　inks　possesses　a　worldwide
  reputation；　although　not　always　known　by　that
  name；　beginning　A。　D。　1724　under　the　style　of　R。
  Ford；　and　continuing　until　1772；　when　the　firm　name
  was　changed　to　William　Green　&　Co。　In　1809　it　became
  J。　&　J。　Arnold；　who　were　succeeded　in　1814　by
  Pichard　and　John　Arnold；　the　firm　name　by　which　it
  is　known　at　the　present　day。　This　last　named　concern
  located　at　59　Barbican；　on　the　site　of　the　old
  City　Hall　in　London；　and　later　moved　to　their　present
  address；　No。　155　Aldersgate　street。　The　inks　made
  by　the　〃fathers〃　of　the　firm　were　〃gall〃　inks　WITHOUT
  〃added〃　color。　At　the　commencement　of　the　nineteenth
  century　we　find　them　making　tanno…gallate　of
  iron　inks　to　which　were　added　extractive　matter　from
  logwood　and　other　materials　to　form　thick　fluids　for
  shipment　to　Brazil；　India　and　the　countries　where
  brushes　or　reeds　were　used　as　writing　instruments。
  For　the　more　civilized　portions　of　the　world　similar
  inks　but　of　an　increased　fluidity　were　supplied；　that
  the　quill　pens　might　be　employed。　The　demands　for
  still　more　fluid　inks　which　would　permit　the　use　of
  steel　pens；　resulted　in　the　modern　blue…black　chemical
  writing　fluid；　the　〃added〃　blue　portion　being
  indigo　in　some　form。　It　was　first　put　on　the　market
  in　1830。　They　manufacture　over　thirty　varieties　of
  ink；　but　only　one　real　〃gall〃　ink　without　〃added〃　color。
  In　the　early　part　of　May；　1824；　Thaddeus　Davids
  started　his　ink　factory　at　No。　222　William　street；
  New　York　City。　His　first　and　best　effort　was　a
  strictly　pure　tanno…gallate　of　iron　ink；　which　he
  placed　on　the　market　in　1827　under　the　name　of
  〃Steel　Pen　Ink；〃　guaranteed　to　write　black　and　to
  possess　〃record〃　qualities。　In　1833　he　made　innovations
  following　the　lines　laid　down　by　Arnold　and
  also　commenced　the　manufacture　of　a　chemical　writing
  fluid；　with　indigo　for　〃added〃　color。　Many
  more　〃added〃　colors　were　employed　at　different
  periods；　like　logwood　and　fustic；　with　the　incorporation
  of　sugar；　glucose；　etc。　In　the　early　fifties　the
  cheap　grades　of　logwood　ink　after　the　formula　of
  Runge　（1848）　and　which　cost　about　four　cents　per
  gallon　was　marketed；　principally　for　school　purposes；
  it　was　never　satisfactory；　becoming　thick　and　〃color
  fading。〃　Mr。　Davids　made　many　experiments　with
  〃alizarin〃　inks　in　the　early　sixties　but　did　not
  consider　them　valuable　enough　to　put　on　the　market。
  In　1875　the　firm　introduced　violet　ink　made　from　the
  aniline　color　of　that　name。　Experimentations　in　1878
  with　the　insoluble　aniline　blacks　and　vanadium　were
  unsuccessful；　but　the　soluble　aniline　black　（blue…
  black）　known　as　nigrosine　they　used　and　still　use　in
  various　combinations。　During　this　long　period　their
  establishments　have　been　in　different　locations。　From
  No。　222　William　street　it　was　changed　to　Eighth
  street；　with　the　office　at　No。　26　Cliff　street。　In　1854
  the　works　were　removed　to　New　Rochelle；　Westchester
  county；　N。　Y。　In　1856　the　firm　name　was
  Thaddeus　Davids　and　Co。；　Mr。　George　Davids　having
  been　admitted　as　a　partner　and　their　warehouse　and
  offices　at　this　time　were　located　at　Nos。　127　and　129
  William　street；　where　a　business　of　enormous　proportions；
  which　includes　the　manufacture　of　thirty…three
  inks　and　other　products；　is　still　carried　on　at　the
  present　day　under　the　name　and　style　of　〃Thaddeus
  Davids；　Co。〃　The　old　〃Davids'　Steel　Pen　Ink〃　continues
  to　be　manufactured　from　the　original　formula
  and　is　the　only　tanno…gallate　of　iron　ink　they　make；
  WITHOUT　〃added〃　color。
  The　Paris　house　of　〃Antoine〃　as　manufacturers　of
  writing　inks　dates　from　1840。　They　are　best　known
  as　the　makers　of　the　French　copying　ink；　of　a　violet…
  black　color；　made　from　logwood；　which　was　first　put
  on　the　market　in　1853　under　the　name　of　Encres
  Japonaise。　In　1860　an　agency　was　established　in
  New　York　City。　They　make　a　large　variety　of　writing
  inks　but　do　not　offer　for　sale　a　tanno…gallate　of
  iron　ink　without　〃added〃　color。
  〃Carter's〃　inks　came　into　notoriety　in　1861；　by　the
  introduction　of　a　〃combined　writing　and　copying
  ink；〃　of　the　gall　and　iron　type　and　included　〃added　〃
  color。　It　was　the　first　innovation　of　this　character。
  At　the　end　of　the　Civil　War；　John　W。　Carter　of　Boston；
  who　had　been　an　officer　of　the　regular　army；
  purchased　an　interest　in　the　business；　associating　with
  himself　Mr。　J。　P。　Dinsmore　of　New　York；　the　firm
  being　known　as　Carter；　Dinsmore　&　Co。；　Boston；　Mass。
  In　1895　Mr。　Carter　died　and　Mr。　Dinsmore　retired
  from　the　business。　The　firm　was　then　incorporated
  under　the　style　of　〃The　Carter's　Ink　Co。〃　They　do
  an　immense　business　and　make　all　kinds　of　ink。　Of
  the　logwoods；　〃Raven　Black〃　is　best　known。　When
  the　state　of　Massachusetts　in　1894　decided　that　recording
  officers　must　use　a　〃gall〃　ink　made　after　an
  official　formula；　they　competed　with　other　manufacturers
  for　the　privilege　of　supplying　such　an　ink　and
  won　it。　They　do　not　offer　for　sale；　however；　〃gall〃
  ink　WITHOUT　added　color。　Their　laboratories　are
  magnificently　equipped；　the　writer　has　had　the　pleasure
  of　collaborating　with　several　of　their　expert　chemists。
  The　〃Fabers；〃　who　date　back　to　the　year　1761；　are
  known　all　over　the　world　as　lead　pencil　makers。　They
  also　manufacture　many　inks　and　have　done　so　since
  1881；　when　they　built　now　factories　at　Noisy…le…Sac；
  near　Paris。　Blue…black　and　violet…black　writing　and
  copying　inks　of　the　class　made　by　the　〃Antoines〃
  are　the　principal　kinds。　They　do　not　offer　for　sale；
  tanno…gallate　of　iron　ink　without　〃added〃　color。　A
  branch　house　in　New　York　City　has　remained　since
  1843。
  〃Stafford's〃　violet　combined　writing　and　copying
  ink　was　first　placed　on　the　New　York　market　in
  1869；　though　it　was　in　1858　that　Mr。　S。　S。　Stafford；
  the　founder　of　the　house；　began　the　manufacture　of
  inks；　which　he　has　continued　to　do　to　the　present
  day。　His　chemical　writing　fluids　are　very　popular；
  but　he　does　not　make　a　tanno…gallate　of　iron　ink
  without　〃added〃　color；　for　the　trade。
  Charles　M。　Higgins　of　Brooklyn；　N。　Y。；　in　1880
  commenced　the　manufacture　of　〃carbon〃　inks　for
  engrossing；　architectural　and　engineering　purposes；
  and　has　succeeded　in　producing　an　excellent　liquid
  〃Indian〃　ink；　which　will　not　lose　its　consistency
  if　kept　from　the　air。　It　can　also　be　used　as　a　writing
  ink；　if　thinned　down　with　water。　He　does　not
  make　a　tanno…gallate　of　iron　ink　without　〃added〃
  color。
  Maynard　and　Noyes；　whose　inks　were　much
  esteemed　in　this　section　for　over　fifty　years；　is　no
  longer　in　business；　as　is　the　case　with　many　others　well
  known　during　the　first　half　of　the　nineteenth　century。
  The　enormous　quantities　of　ink　of　every　color；
  quality　and　description　made　in　the　United　States
  almost　surpasses　belief。　It　is　said　that　the　output　for
  home　consumption　alone　exceeds　twelve　millions　of
  gallons　per　annum；　and　for　export　three　thousand　gallons
  per　annum。
  It　is　very　safe　to　affirm　that　less　than　1/50　of　1　per
  cent　of　this　quantity　represents　a　tanno…gallate　of
  iron　ink　WITHOUT　〃added〃　color。　Most　colored　inks
  and　〃gall〃　ones　which　possess　〃added〃　color　if
  placed　on　paper　under　ordinary　conditions　will　not
  be　visible　a　hundred　years　hence。
  This　statement　of　mine　might　be　considered　altogether
  paradoxical　were　it　not　for　associated　evidential
  facts；　which　by　proving　themselves　have　established
  its　correctness　and　truth。　To　repeat　one　of　them　is
  to　refer　to　the　report　of　Professors　Baird　and　Markoe；
  who　examined　for　the　state　of　Massachusetts　all　the
  commercial　inks　on　the　market　at　that　time。
  〃As　a　conclusion；　since　the　great　mass　of　inks
  on　the　market　are　not　suitable　for　records；　because
  of　their　lack　of　body　and　because　of　the　quantity　of
  unstable　color　which　they　contain；　and　because　the
  few　whose　coloring　matters　are　not　objectionable
  are　deficient　in　gall　and　iron　or　both；　we　would
  strongly　recommend　that　the　State　set　its　own
  standard　for　the　composition　of　inks　to　be　used　in
  its　offices　and　for　its　records。〃
  An　official　ink　modelled　somewhat　after　the　formula
  employed　by　the　government　of　Great　Britain　was
  contracted　for　by　the　state　of　Massachusetts。　It　read
  as　follows：
  〃Take　of　pure；　dry　tannic　acid；　23。4　parts　by　weight。
  of　crystal　gallic　acid；　7。7　parts。
  of　ferrous　sulphate；　30。0　parts。
  of　gum　arabic；　10。0　parts。
  of　diluted　hydrochloric　acid；　25。0　parts。
  of　carbolic　acid；　1。0　part。
  of　water；　sufficient　to　make　up　the　mixture
  at　the　temperature　of　60　degrees　F。
  to　the　volume　of　1；000　parts　by
  weight　of　water。〃
  Such　an　ink　prepared　after　this　receipt　would　be　a
  strictly　pure　tanno…ga