Mary　Johns；　microscopic　writer　and　author。
  1749。
  Charles　Woodham；　〃A　Specimen　of　Writing；
  in　the　most　Useful　Hands　now　Practised　in　England。〃
  1750。
  John　Oldfield；　〃Honesty。〃　He　wrote　one　piece
  in　〃The　Universal　Penman。〃
  1750。
  Joseph　Champion；　〃The　Parallel　or　Comparative
  Penmanship。〃　1762；　〃The　Living　Hands。〃
  1751。
  Edward　Lloyd；　〃Young　Merchants　Assistant。〃
  1758。
  Richard　Clark；　〃Practical　and　Ornamental　Penmanship。〃
  1760。
  Benjamin　Webb；　writer　of　copy　books；　etc。
  1762。
  William　Chinnery；　〃The　Compendious　Emblematist。〃
  1763。
  William　Massey；　〃The　Origin　and　Progress　of
  Letters；〃　containing　valuable　information
  about　the　art。
  1769。
  John　Gardner；　〃Introduction　to　the　Counting
  House。〃
  1780。
  Edward　Powell；　writing　master　and　designer。
  1784。
  E。　Butterworth；　〃The　Universal　Penman〃　in
  two　parts；　published　in　Edinburgh。
  1795。
  William　Milns；　〃The　Penman's　Repository。〃
  1799。
  William　G。　Wheatcroft；　〃The　Modern　Penman。〃
  1814。
  John　Carstairs；　〃Tachygraphy；　or　the　Flying
  Pen。〃　2。　〃Writing　made　easy；　etc。〃
  Illustrated　works　on　the　subject　of　penmanship　of
  contemporaneous　times　and　not　of　English　origin　are
  but　few。　The　best　known　are：
  1543。
  Luduvico　Vicentino；　〃A　Copy　book〃　published
  in　Rome；　seems　to　have　been　the　first。
  1570。
  Il　perfetto　Scrittore　（The　Perfect　Writer）　by
  Francesco　Cresci；　published　in　Rome。
  1605。
  Spieghel　der　Schrijkfkonste　（or　Mirror　of
  Penmanship）　written　by　Van　den　Velde；　published
  in　Amsterdam。
  1612。
  〃Writing　and　Ink　Recipes；〃　by　Peter　Caniparius；
  Venice　and　London。
  1700。
  Der　Getreue　Schreibemeister　（or　True　Writing
  Master）；　by　Johann　Friedr　Vicum；　published
  in　Dresden。
  From　1602　to　1709　many　〃Indian〃　ink　specimens
  were　extant　and　are　still　of　the　different　schools　of
  penmanship。　The　productions　of　Phrysius；　Materot　and
  Barbedor　illustrating　the　French　style；　Vignon；　Sellery
  and　others；　for　the　Italian　hand；　and　Overbique　and
  Smythers　for　the　German　text；　and　Ambrosius　Perlengh
  and　Hugo；　with　a　few　more；　complete　the　list。
  CHAPTER　XII。
  STUDY　OF　INK。
  LACK　OF　INTEREST　AS　TO　THE　COMPOSITION　OF　INK　DURING
  PART　OF　THE　EIGHTEENTH　CENTURYTHE　CONDITIONS
  WHICH　THEN　PREVAILED　NEARLY　THE　SAME　AS
  THE　PRESENT　TIMECHEMISTRY　OF　INK　NOT　UNDERSTOOD
  THIS　LACK　OF　INFORMATION　NOT　CONFINED　TO
  ANY　PARTICULAR　COUNTRYLEWIS；　IN　1765；　BEGINS
  A　SCIENTIFIC　INVESTIGATION　ON　THE　SUBJECT　OF　INKS
  THE　RESULTS　AND　HIS　CONCLUSIONS　PUBLISHED　IN
  1797THE　ROYAL　SOCIETY　OF　ENGLAND　IN　1787　RECEIVES
  COMPLAINTS　ABOUT　THE　INFERIORITY　OF　INKS
  ITS　SECRETARY　READS　A　PAPER　THE　SAME　YEARTHE
  PAPER　CITED　IN　FULLDR。　BOSTOCK　IN　1830　COMMUNICATES
  TO　THE　SOCIETY　OF　ARTS　WHAT　HE　ESTIMATES
  TO　BE　THE　CAUSES　OF　IMPERFECTIONS　IN　INK
  ACTION　OF　THE　FRENCH　ACADEMY　OF　SCIENCES
  COMPLICATIONS　SURROUNDING　THE　MANUFACTURE　OF　INK
  ONLY　THIRTY…FIVE　YEARS　AGO。
  THE　increasing　demands　for　ink；　and　the　lack　of　interest
  as　to　its　composition　during　the　eighteenth
  century；　if　viewed　in　the　same　lights　which　prevail　in
  our　own　times；　permitted　the　general　manufacture　of
  cheap　grades　of　ink　which　possessed　no　very　lasting
  qualities。　The　chemistry　of　Inks　was　not　fully　understood；
  indeed　we　find　Professer　Turner　of　the　College
  of　Edinburgh　declaring　in　1827：
  〃Gallic　acid　was　discovered　by　Scheele　in　1786；
  and　exists　ready　formed　in　the　bark　of　many　trees；
  and　in　gall…nuts。　It　is　always　associated　with
  tannin；　a　substance　to　which　it　is　allied　in　a　manner
  hitherto　unexplained。　It　is　distinguished　from
  tannin　by　causing　no　precipitate　in　a　solution　of
  gelatine。　With　a　salt　of　iron　it　forms　a　dark　blue
  coloured　compound；　which　is　the　basis　of　ink。　The
  finest　colour　is　procured　when　the　peroxide　and
  protoxide　of　iron　are　mixed　together。　This　character
  distinguishes　gallic　acid　from　every　other　substance
  excepting　tannin。〃
  The　general　lack　of　information　or　knowledge　respecting
  ink　chemistry　or　its　time…phenomena　was　not
  confined　to　any　particular　country；　and　it　does　not
  appear　that　any　general　or　specific　attention　was
  scientifically　directed　to　it　until　1765；　when　William
  Lewis；　F。　R。　S。；　an　English　chemist；　publicly　announced
  that　he　proposed　to　investigate　the　subject。
  His　experimentations　covered　a　period　of　many　years
  and　their　results　and　his　theories　as　to　the　phenomena
  of　inks　were　published　in　1797。　The　most　valuable
  of　his　conclusions　were　that　an　excess　of　iron　salt　in
  the　ink　is　detrimental　to　color　permanence　（such　ink
  becoming　brown　on　exposure）　and　also　that　acetic
  acid　in　the　menstruum　provides　an　ink　of　greater
  body　and　blackness　than　sulphuric　acid　does　（a　circumstance
  due　to　the　smaller　resistance　of　acetic　acid
  to　the　formation　of　iron　gallo…tannate）。　Many　of　his
  other　observations　were　later　shown　to　have　been
  erroneous。　Dr。　Lewis　was　the　first　to　advocate　log…
  wood　as　a　tinctorial　agent　in　connection　with　iron　and
  gall　compositions。
  Ribaucourt；　a　French　ink　maker；　in　1798　determined
  that　an　excess　of　galls　is　quite　as　injurious　to
  the　permanence　of　ink　as　an　excess　of　iron。
  Pending　the　completion　of　the　researches　of　Lewis；
  the　Royal　Society　of　England；　affected　by　complaints
  from　all　quarters　relative　to　the　inferiority　of　inks　as
  compared　with　those　of　earlier　times；　brought　the
  subject　to　the　attention　of　many　of　its　members　for
  discussion　and　advice。　Its　secretary；　Charles　Blagden；
  M。　D。；　read　a　paper　before　the　society；　June　28；　1787；
  which　was　published　in　the　〃Philosophical　Transactions〃
  and　widely　circulated。　It　is　so　interesting　that
  copious　extracts　are　given：
  〃In　a　conversation　some　time　ago　with　my　friend
  Thomas　Astle；　Esq。；　F。　R。　S。　and　A。　S。；　relative
  to　the　legibility　of　ancient　MSS。　a　question　arose；
  whether　the　inks　in　use　eight　or　ten　centuries　ago；
  which　are　often　found　to　have　preserved　their　colour
  remarkably　well；　were　made　of　different　materials
  from　those　employed　in　later　times；　of　which　many
  are　already　become　so　pale　as　scarcely　to　be　read。
  With　a　view　to　the　decision　of　this　question；　Mr。
  Astle　obligingly　furnished　me　with　several　MSS。；
  on　parchment　and　vellum；　from　the　ninth　to　the
  fifteenth　centuries　inclusively；　some　of　which　were
  still　black；　and　others　of　different　shades　of　colour；
  from　a　deep　yellowish　brown　to　a　very　pale　yellow；
  in　some　parts　so　faint　as　to　be　scarcely　visible。　On
  all　of　these　I　made　experiments　with　the　chemical
  re…agents　which　appeared　to　me　best　adapted　to
  the　purpose；　namely；　alkalis　both　simple　and　phlogisticated；
  the　mineral　acids；　and　infusions　of　galls。
  〃It　would　be　tedious　and　superfluous　to　enter　into
  a　detail　of　the　particular　experiments；　as　all　of
  them；　one　instance　only　excepted；　agreed　in　the
  general　result；　to　shew　that　the　ink　employed
  anciently；　as　far　as　the　above…mentioned　MSS。
  extended；　was　of　the　same　nature　as　the　present；
  for　the　letters　turned　of　a　reddish　or　yellow　brown
  with　alkalis；　became　pale；　and　were　at　length
  obliterated；　with　the　dilute　mineral　acids；　and　the
  drop　of　acid　liquor　which　had　extracted　a　letter；
  changed　to　a　deep　blue　or　green　on　the　addition　of
  a　drop　of　phlogisticated　alkali；　moreover；　the　letters
  acquired　a　deeper　tinge　with　the　infusion　of
  galls；　in　some　cases　more；　in　others　less。　Hence
  it　is　evident；　that　one　of　the　ingredients　was　iron；
  which　there　is　no　reason　to　doubt　was　joined　with
  the　vitriolic　acid；　and　the　colour　of　the　more　perfect
  MSS。　which　in　some　was　deep　black；　and　in　others
  purplish　black；　together　with　the　restitution　of　that
  colour；　in　those　which　had　lost　it；　by　the　infusion
  of　galls；　sufficiently　proved　that　another　of　the　ingredients
  was　a　stringent　matter；　which　from　history
  appears　to　be　that　of　galls。　No　trace　of　a　black
  pigment　of　any　sort　was　discovered；　the　drop　of
  acid　which　had　completely　extracted　a　letter；　appearing
  of　an　uniform　pale　ferrugineous　color；　without
  an　atom　of　black　powder；　or　other　extraneous
  matter；　floating　in　it。
  〃As　to　the　durability　of　the　more　ancient　inks；
  it　seemed；　from　what　occurred　to　me　in　these　experiments；
  to　depend　very　much　on　a　better　preparation
  of　the　material　upon　which　the　writing　was
  made；　namely；　the　parchment　or　vellum；　the　blackest
  letters　being　those　which　had　sunk　into　it
  deepest。　Some　degree　of　effervescence　was　commonly
  to　be　perceived　when　the　acids　came　into
  contact　with　the　surface　of　these　old　vellums。　I
  was　led；　however；　to　suspect；　that　the　more　modern；
  for　in　general　the　tinge　of　colour；　produced　by　the
  phlogisticated　alkali　in　the　acid　laid　upon　them；
  seemed　less　deep；　which；　however；　might　depend
  in　part　upon　the　length　of　time　they　have　been
  kept：　and　perhaps　more　gum　was　used　in　them；
  or　possible　they　wer