OF　VARIOUS　COUNTRIES…KINDS　OF　INK　EMPLOYED
  IN　LITURGICAL　WRITINGSTHE　PUBLIC　SCRIBES
  AND　THEIR　EMPLOYMENTSEFFORTS　TO　COUNTERFEIT
  OLD　SCRIPT　IN　EARLY　PRINTED　BOOKSWHEN　THEY
  WERE　ABANDONED。
  IT　is　well　known　that　alchemy　preceded　chemistry
  and　hence　the　Secreta　came　first。　When　the　formula
  for　making　a　real　〃gall〃　ink　had　ceased　to　be　a　secret；
  chemistry　was　then　but　little　understood。　It　is　not　a
  matter　for　wonder；　therefore；　to　learn　that　〃gall〃　ink
  of　the　first　half　of　the　twelfth　century　was　low　in
  grade　and　poor　in　quality。　It　was　a　muddy　fluid
  easily　precipitated　and　it　deteriorated　quickly。　A
  century　or　more　of　experimenting　was　needed　to
  modify　or　overcome　defects；　as　well　as　to　gain
  information　about　the　chemical　value　of　the　different
  tannins；　the　relative　proportions　of　each　constituent
  and　the　correct　methods　in　its　admixture。
  There　is　no　written　account　of　this　ink　being　manufactured
  as　an　industry　until　over　three　hundred　years
  later。　Hence；　as　it　appears　so　frequently　of　varying
  degrees　of　color　on　documents　of　the　intervening
  centuries；　we　are　compelled　to　assume　that　it　was
  compounded　by　individuals　who　had　neither　chemical
  knowledge；　nor　who　had　made　a　study　or　a　business
  of　ink…making。　Notwithstanding　which；　its　progress
  seems　to　have　been　comparatively　rapid　and　like　the
  same　ink　of　the　present　day　was　to　be　obtained　of　any
  quality　or　kind；　whether　unadulterated　or　containing
  some　added　color。
  Intense　black　or　a　black　tinged　with　red…brown
  characterizes　the　color　of　the　inks　found　on　the　very
  earliest　MSS。　Their　lasting　color　phenomena；　due　to
  the　employment　of　lampblack　and　kindred　substances
  even　after　a　lapse　of　so　many　ages；　is　at　this　late　day
  of　no　particular　moment　as　they　but　prove　the　virtues
  of　the　different　types　of　〃Indian〃　inks。
  A　different　set　of　facts　are　evident　in　the　inks　of
  mediaeval　times　which　are　found　to　greatly　vary　according
  to　their　ages　and　locality。　But　few　black
  inks　of　the　ninth　and　tenth　centuries　remain　to　us。
  In　the　MSS。　of　those　centuries　a　red　ink　was　the　prevailing
  one　even　to　the　extent　of　entire　volumes　being
  written　with　it。　In　Italy　and　many　other　portions　of
  Southern　Europe　specimens　now　extant；　when　compared
  with　those　belonging　to　Germany　and　other
  more　northern　countries；　are　seen　to　be　blacker　and
  this　is　also　true　when　those　of　France　and　England
  are　compared；　the　blacker　inks　belonging　to　France。
  With　the　gradual　disappearance　of　the　so…called
  〃Dark　Ages；〃　the　ink　found　on　Spanish　written　MSS。
  of　the　fourteenth　and　fifteenth　centuries；　are　notedly
  of　intense　blackness　while　those　of　some　of　the　other
  countries　appear　of　a　rather　faded　gray　color；　and　in
  the　sixteenth　century；　this　gray　color　effect　prevailed
  all　over　the　Christian　world。
  To　revert　again　to　the　ink　phenomena　of　the　fourteenth
  and　fifteenth　centuries　which　are　of　Italian
  origin。　In　no　section　of　that　country　or　of　Europe
  during　those　centuries　do　ink　creations　possess；　in　so
  marked　a　degree；　the　variety　of　color　qualities　that
  are　seen　on　those　of　the　city　of　Florence。　Indeed　it
  may　be　truly　said　that　during　those　periods　more　ink
  written　MSS。　were　produced　in　that　place　than　all　the
  rest　of　Europe。　These　productions　of　MSS。　were　not
  confined　to　simple　ink　writings。　The　heads　of　religious
  orders　and　rulers　of　the　country　liked　to　have
  artists　near　them　to　illuminate　their　missals　and　sacred
  books；　besides　the　decorating　of　walls　in　their　churches
  and　palaces。
  Through　this　art　of　illuminating　and　the　painting　of
  miniatures　in　MSS。　books；　〃oil〃　painting　took　root　and
  the　day　for　mere　symbols　and　hieroglyphics　was　over。
  In　that　city　of　scholars　and　wealth　it　was　a　fashion
  and　later　the　custom　to　acquire　Greek；　Latin　and
  Oriental　MSS。　and　copy　them　for　circulation　and　sale。
  The　prices　offered　were　sufficient　to　stimulate　the
  search　and　zeal　for　them。　We　learn　that　in　the　year
  1400　〃on　the　square　of　the　Duoma　a　spacciatore
  was　established　whose　business　was　to　sell　manuscripts
  often　full　of　mistakes　and　blunders。〃　Nicholas　V；
  before　he　became　Pope；　was　nicknamed　〃Tommaso　the
  Copyist。〃　He　is　said　to　have　presented　to　the　Vatican
  library　as　a　gift　five　thousand　volumes　of　his　own
  creation。
  The　information　of　these　increasing　demands　for　ancient
  documents　of　any　kind　spread　over　Europe　and
  portions　of　Asia；　bringing　into　Florence　a　great
  quantity　of　them；　as　well　as　many　scholars　and　copyists。
  Shiploads　of　the　works　of　the　Byzantine　historians
  arrived　from　the　Golden　Horn；　and　the　city
  became　a　vast　manufactory　for　duplicating　or　forging
  ancient　MSS。　Parchment　and　vellum　were　too　costly
  to　employ　very　much；　so　most　of　them　were　of　paper。
  Vespaciano；　one　of　the　many　engaged　in　this　business
  and　who　lived　in　1464；　found　it　necessary　in　order　to
  reduce　the　cost　of　production；　to　become　a　paper　merchant。
  In　writing　to　a　friend　he　says：
  〃I　engaged　forty…five　copyists　and　in　twenty…
  two　months　had　completed　two　hundred　volumes；
  which　included　some　Greek　and　Latin　as　well　as
  many　Oriental　writings。〃
  The　reading　and　judging　of　manuscripts　are　now
  known　as　the　science　of　diplomatics。　To　determine
  their　antiquity　or　genuineness　requires　the　nicest　distinctions
  and　care；　irrespective　of　alleged　dates　（whether
  exhibited　by　Roman　numbers　or　the　Arabic　one　which
  we　continue　to　employ；　and　which　first　made　their
  appearance　near　the　commencement　of　the　twelfth
  century）。　The　inks　as　already　mentioned　and　used
  on　them；　as　we　shall　see；　serve　fully　as　much　in　estimating
  authenticity　or　genuineness　as　does　combined
  together；the　style　of　the　writing；　the　miniatures；
  vignettes　and　arabesques　（if　any）；　the　colors；　covers；
  materials；　ornamentation　and　the　character　of　their
  contents。
  With　the　re…establishment　of　learning　in　the　fifteenth
  century　and　the　creation　of　alleged　stable　governments；
  who　may　perhaps　have　realized　the　necessity
  for　an　ink　of　enduring　good　commercial　and　record
  qualities；　so…called　〃gall〃　inks　were　chosen　as　best
  possessing　them；　and　were　made　and　employed　with
  varying　results　even　more　than　the　ancient　〃Indian〃
  inks。
  Mediaeval　practices　in　relation　to　ink　and　other
  writing　materials　as　well　as　the　monastic　libraries　of
  which　England；　France；　Germany　and　Italy　possessed
  many　during　the　thirteenth；　fourteenth；　and　more
  particularly　the　fifteenth　centuries；　were　governed　by
  established　rules。
  The　libraries　of　such　institutions　were　placed　by　the
  abbot　under　the　sole　charge　of　the　〃armarian；〃　an
  officer　who　was　made　responsible　for　the　preservation
  of　the　volumes　under　his　care；　be　was　expected　frequently
  to　examine　them；　lest　damp　or　insects　should
  injure　them；　he　was　to　cover　them　with　wooden
  covers　to　preserve　them　and　carefully　to　mend　and
  restore　any　damage　which　time　or　accident　might
  cause；　he　was　to　make　a　note　of　any　book　borrowed
  from　the　library；　with　the　name　of　the　borrower；
  but　this　last　rule　applied　only　to　the　less　valuable
  portion　of　it；　as　the　〃great　and　precious　books〃
  could　only　be　lent　by　the　permission　of　the　abbot
  himself。　It　was　also　the　duty　of　the　armarian
  to　have　all　the　books　in　his　charge　marked　with　their
  correct　titles；　and　to　keep　a　perfect　list　of　the　whole。
  Some　of　these　catalogues　are　still　in　existence　and　are
  curious　and　interesting　in　their　exemplification　of　the
  kinds　of　ink　employed　and　as　indicative　of　the　state
  of　literature　in　the　Middle　Ages；　besides　presenting
  the　names　of　many　authors　whose　works　have　never
  reached　us。　It　was　also　the　duty　of　the　armarian；
  under　the　orders　of　his　superior；　to　provide　the　transcribers
  of　manuscripts　with　the　writings　which　they
  were　to　copy；　as　well　as　all　the　materials　necessary
  for　their　labors；　to　make　bargains　as　to　payment；　and
  to　superintend　the　work　during　their　progress。
  These　transcribers；　Mr。　Maitland　in　his　〃Dark
  Ages〃　tells　us；　were　monks　and　their　clerks；　some　of
  whom　were　so　skilled　that　they　could　perform　all　the
  different　branches。　They　were　exhorted　by　the　rules
  of　their　order　to　learn　writing；　and　to　persevere　in
  the　work　of　copying　manuscripts　as　being　one　most
  acceptable　to　God；　those　who　could　not　write　were
  recommended　to　bind　books。　This　was　in　line　with
  the　behest　of　the　famous　monk　Alciun　who　lived　in
  the　eighth　century　and　who　entreated　all　to　employ
  themselves　in　copying　books；　saying：
  〃It　is　a　most　meritorious　work；　more　useful　to
  the　health　than　working　in　the　fields；　which　profits
  only　a　man's　body；　while　the　labour　of　a　copyist
  profits　his　soul。〃
  When　black　ink　was　used　in　liturgical　writings；　the
  title　page　and　heads　of　chapters　were　written　in
  red　ink；　whence　comes　the　term　rubric。　Green；
  purple；　blue　and　yellow　inks　were　sometimes　used
  for　words；　but　chiefly　for　ornamenting　capital
  letters。
  A　large　room　was　in　most　mona