and　civilization　that　kept　this　method　in　constant
  exercise。　It　was　chiefly　for　the　lack　of　ability
  and　lack　of　disposition　to　put　paper　to　proper　use
  that　the　earlier　European　knowledge　of　paper…
  making　was　so　barren　of　results。　The　art　of　book…
  making　as　it　was　then　practised　was　made　subservient
  to　the　spirit　of　luxury　more　than　to　the　desire
  for　knowledge。　Vellum　was　regarded　by　the　copyist
  as　the　only　substance　fit　for　writing　on；　even
  when　it　was　so　scarce　that　it　could　be　used　only　for
  the　most　expensive　books。　The　card…like　cotton
  paper　once　made　by　the　Saracens　was　certainly
  known　in　Europe　for　many　years　before　its　utility
  was　recognized。　Hallam　says　that　the　use　of　this
  cotton　paper　was　by　no　means　general　or　frequent；
  except　in　Spain　or　Italy；　and　perhaps　in　the　south
  of　France；　until　the　end　of　the　fourteenth　century。
  Nor　was　it　much　used　in　Italy　for　books。
  〃Paper　came　before　its　time　and　had　to　wait　for
  recognition。　It　was　sorely　needed。　The　Egyptian
  manufacture　of　papyrus；　which　was　in　a　state　of
  decay　in　the　seventh　century；　ceased　entirely　in　the
  ninth　or　tenth。　Not　many　books　were　written　during
  this　period；　but　there　was　then；　and　for　at　least
  three　centuries　afterwards；　an　unsatisfied　demand
  for　something　to　write　upon。　Parchment　was　so
  scarce　that　reckless　copyists　frequently　resorted　to
  the　desperate　expedient　of　effacing　the　writing　on
  old　and　lightly　esteemed　manuscripts。　It　was　not
  a　difficult　task。　The　writing　ink　then　used　was
  usually　made　of　lamp…black；　gum　and　vinegar；　it
  it　had　but　a　feeble　encaustic　property；　and　it　did
  not　bite　in　or　penetrate　the　parchment。　The　work
  of　effacing　this　ink　was　accomplished　by　moistening
  the　parchment　with　a　weak　alkaline　solution　and
  by　rubbing　it　with　pumice　stone。　This　treatment
  did　not　entirely　obliterate　the　writing；　but　made　it
  so　indistinct　that　the　parchment　could　be　written
  over　the　second　time。　Manuscripts　so　treated　are
  now　known　as　palimpsests。　All　the　large　European
  public　libraries　have　copies　of　palimpsests；　which　are
  melancholy　illustrations　of　the　literary　tastes　of
  many　writers　or　bookmakers　during　the　Middle
  Ages。　More　convincingly　than　by　argument　they
  show　the　utility　of　paper。　Manuscripts　of　the
  Gospels；　of　the　Iliad；　and　of　works　of　the　highest
  merit；　often　of　great　beauty　and　accuracy；　are
  dimly　seen　underneath　stupid　sermons；　and　theological
  writings　of　a　nature　so　paltry　that　no　man
  living　cares　to　read　them。　In　Some　instances　the
  first　writing　has　been　so　thoroughly　scrubbed　out
  that　its　meaning　is　irretrievably　lost。
  〃Much　as　paper　was　needed；　it　was　not　at　all　popular
  with　copyists；　their　prejudice　was　not　altogether
  unreasonable；　for　it　was　thick；　coarse；　knotty；　and
  in　every　way　unfitted　for　the　display　or　ornamental
  penmanship　or　illumination。　The　cheaper　quality；
  then　known　as　cotton　paper；　was　especially　objectionable。
  It　seems　to　have　been　so　badly　made　as
  to　need　governmental　interference。　Frederick　II；
  of　Germany；　in　the　year　1221；　foreseeing　evils
  that　might　arise　from　bad　paper；　made　a　decree　by
  which　he　made　invalid　all　public　documents　that
  should　be　put　on　cotton　paper；　and　ordered　them
  within　two　years　to　be　transcribed　upon　parchment。
  Peter　II；　of　Spain；　in　the　year　1338；　publicly
  commanded　the　paper…makers　of　Valencia　and
  Xativa　to　make　their　paper　of　a　better　quality　and
  equal　to　that　of　an　earlier　period。
  〃The　better　quality　of　paper；　now　known　as
  linen　paper；　had　the　merits　of　strength；　flexibility；
  and　durability　in　a　high　degree；　but　it　was　set　aside
  by　the　copyists　because　the　fabric　was　too　thick
  and　the　surface　was　too　rough。　The　art　of　calendering
  or　polishing　papers　until　they　were　of　a
  smooth；　glossy　surface；　which　was　then　practised
  by　the　Persians；　was　unknown　to；　or　at　least
  unpractised　by；　the　early　European　makers。　The
  changes　or　fashion　in　the　selection　of　writing　papers
  are　worthy　of　passing　notice。　The　rough
  hand…made　papers　so　heartily　despised　by　the
  copyists　of　the　thirteenth　century　are　now　preferred
  by　neat　penmen　and　skilled　draughtsmen。
  The　imitations　of　mediaeval　paper；　thick；　harsh；
  and　dingy；　and　showing　the　marks　of　the　wires
  upon　which　the　fabric　was　couched；　are　preferred
  by　men　of　letters　for　books　and　for　correspondence；
  while　highly　polished　modern　plate　papers；　with
  surfaces　much　more　glossy　than　any　preparation　of
  vellum；　are　now　rejected　by　them　as　finical　and　effeminate。
  〃There　is　a　popular　notion　that　the　so…called　inventions
  of　paper　and　xylographic　printing　were
  gladly　welcomed　by　men　of　letters；　and　that　the
  new　fabric　and　the　new　art　were　immediately
  pressed　into　service。　The　facts　about　to　be　presented
  in　succeeding　chapters　will　lead　to　a　different
  conclusion。　We　shall　see　that　the　makers　of
  playing　cards　and　of　image　prints　were　the　men
  who　first　made　extended　use　of　printing；　and　that
  self…taught　and　unprofessional　copyists　were　the
  men　who　gave　encouragement　to　the　manufacture
  of　paper。　The　more　liberal　use　of　paper　at　the
  beginning　of　the　fifteenth　century　by　this　newly…
  created　class　of　readers　and　book…buyers　marks　the
  period　of　transition　and　of　mental　and　mechanical
  development　for　which　the　crude　arts　of　paper…
  making　and　of　black　printing　had　been　waiting　for
  centuries。　We　shall　also　see　that　if　paper　had　been
  ever　so　cheap　and　common　during　the　Middle　Ages；
  it　would　have　worked　no　changes　in　education　or
  literature；　it　could　not　have　been　used　by　the　people；
  for　they　were　too　illiterate；　it　would　not　have
  been　used　by　the　professional　copyists；　for　they
  preferred　vellum　and　despised　the　substitute。
  〃The　scarcity　of　vellum　in　one　century；　and　its
  abundance　in　another；　are　indicated　by　the　size
  of　written　papers　during　the　same　periods。　Before
  the　sixth　century；　legal　documents　were　generally
  written　upon　one　side　only；　in　the　tenth　century
  the　practice　of　writing　upon　both　sides　of　the　vellum
  became　common。　During　the　thirteenth　century
  valuable　documents　were　often　written　upon　strips
  two　inches　wide　and　but　three　and　a　half　inches
  long。　At　the　end　of　the　fourteenth　century　these
  strips　went　out　of　fashion。　The　more　general　use
  of　paper　had　diminished　the　demand　for　vellum　and
  increased　the　supply。　In　the　fifteenth　century；
  legal　documents　on　rolls　of　sewed　vellum　twenty
  feet　in　length　were　not　uncommon。　All　the　valuable
  books　of　the　fourteenth　century　were　written　on
  vellum。　In　the　library　of　the　Louvre　the　manuscripts
  on　paper；　compared　to　those　on　vellum；　were
  as　one　to　twenty…eight；　in　the　library　of　the　Dukes
  of　Burgundy；　one…fifth　of　the　books　were　of　paper。
  The　increase　in　the　proportion　of　paper　books　is　a
  fair　indication　of　the　increasing　popularity　of　paper；
  but　it　is　obvious　that　vellum　was　even　then　considered
  as　the　more　suitable　substance　for　a　book　of　value。〃
  The　curious　contract　belonging　to　the　fourteenth
  century　which　follows；　is　a　literal　copy　of　the　original。
  It　does　not　seem　to　specify　whether　the　book　is　to　be
  made　of　vellum　or　paper。　In　other　respects　the　minute
  details　no　doubt　prevented　any　misunderstanding　between
  the　contracting　parties。
  〃August　26th；　1346There　appeared　Robert
  Brekeling；　scribe；　and　swore　that　he　would　observe
  the　contract　made　between　him　and　Sir　John　Forber；
  viz。；　that　the　said　Robert　would　write　one　Psalter
  with　the　Kalender　for　the　work　of　the　said　Sir
  John　for　5　s。　and　6　d。；　and　in　the　same　Psalter；　in
  the　same　character；　a　Placebo　and　a　Dirige；　with　a
  Hymnal　and　Collectary；　for　4　s。　and　3　d。　And
  the　said　Robert　will　illuminate　（'luminabet'）　all
  the　Psalms　with　great　gilded　letters　laid　in　with
  colours；　and　all　the　large　letters　of　the　Hymnal
  and　Collectary　will　he　illuminate　with　gold　and
  vermillion；　except　the　great　letters　of　double　feasts；
  which　shall　be　as　the　large　gilt　letters　are　in　the　Psalter。
  And　all　the　letters　at　the　commencement　of　the
  verses　shall　be　illuminated　with　good　azure　and　vermillion；
  and　all　the　letters　at　the　beginning　of　the
  Nocturns　shall　be　great　uncial　（unciales）　letters；　containing
  V。　lines；　but　the　Beatus　Vir　and　Dixit　Dominus
  shall　contain　VI。　or　VII。　lines；　and　for　the
  aforesaid　illumination　and　for　colours　he　＇John＇
  will　give　5　s。　6　d。；　and　for　gold　he　will　give　18　d。；
  and　2　s。　for　a　cloak　and　fur　trimming。　Item　one
  robeone　coverlet；　one　sheet；　and　one　pillow。〃
  CHAPTER　IX。
  END　OF　MEDIAEVAL　INK。
  THE　SECRETAS　PRECEDE　ALCHEMY　AND　CHEMISTRYEFFORT
  TO　IMPROVE　GALL　INKSVARIATIONS　IN　INK
  COLORSTHE　USE　OF　RED　INK　IN　THE　NINTH　AND
  TENTH　CENTURIESCOLOR　COMPARISONS　BETWEEN　INK
  WRITINGS　OF　ITALY；　GERMANY；　FRANCE；　ENGLAND　AND
  SPAINHOW　TO　DETERMINE　THE　ANTIQUITY　OF
  MSS。PRACTICES　WHICH　OBTAINED　IN　MONASTIC　LIBRARIES
  OF　VARIOUS　COUNTRIES…KINDS　OF　INK　EMPLOYED
  IN　LITURGICAL　WRITINGSTHE　PUBLIC　SCRIBES
  AND　THEIR　EMPLOYMENTSEFFORTS　TO　COU