asserted　by　some　writers　（with　whom　I　do　not
  agree）　to　be　those　commonly　known　as　the　〃Norway
  spruce；〃　a　species　of　pine　of　lofty　proportions　sometimes
  rising　to　the　height　of　150　feet　with　a　trunk
  from　four　to　five　feet　in　diameter。　It　lives　to　a　great
  age　believed　to　exceed　in　many　instances　450　years。
  The　leaves　（needles；　thorns）　are　short　but　stand　thickly
  upon　the　branches　and　are　of　a　dusky　green　color
  shining　on　the　upper　surface；　the　fruit　is　nearly
  cylindrical　in　form　and　of　a　purple　color　covered　with
  scales　ragged　at　the　edges。　It　is　a　native　of　Europe
  and　Northern　Asia。　It　furnishes　the　material　known
  as　Burgundy　pitch　which　is　obtained　by　removing　the
  juice　which　is　secreted　in　the　bark　of　the　tree；　it　is
  purified　by　a　melting　process　and　straining　either
  through　a　cloth　or　a　layer　of　straw。　It　gives　forth　a
  peculiar　odor　not　unpleasant；　resembling　turpentine。
  The　Burgundy　pitch　or　rosin　is　soluble　in　hot　alcohol
  （spirits　of　wine）。
  An　ink　prepared　after　the　method　laid　down　by　this
  monk；　assuming　that　he　referred　to　the　spruce…pine；
  while　troublesome　to　write　with；　would　be　almost　as
  lasting　as　〃Indian〃　ink　and　would　be　most　difficult
  to　erase　from　parchment　into　which　it　would　be　absorbed
  due　to　its　alcoholic　qualities。
  〃The　ink；〃　remarks　Montfaucon；　〃which　we　see　in
  the　most　ancient　Greek　manuscripts；　has　evidently
  lost　much　of　its　pristine　blackness；　yet　neither　has　it
  become　altogether　yellow　or　faint；　but　is　rather　tawny
  or　deep　red；　and　often　not　far　from　a　vermillion。〃
  While　there　are　some　monuments　of　this　kind　of　ink
  in　fair　condition　of　the　fourth　and　succeeding　centuries；
  they　aggregate　but　a　very　small　proportion　of
  the　vast　number　of　principally　Indian　ink　specimens
  which　remain　to　us　of　those　epochs。　As　exemplars；
  however；　of　a　forgotten　class　of　inks　belonging　to　a　still
  more　remote　antiquity；　careful　research　adduces　certain
  proof　of　their　existence　more　than　nine　hundred
  years　before　the　Christian　era　commenced。
  Reference　has　earlier　been　made　to　the　ancient
  Myrobolam　ink；　which　was　characteristically　the　same
  in　color　phenomena　as　those　which　Montfaucon　mentions。
  These　〃tawny〃　colored　inks　I　estimate　were
  products　obtained　from　the　〃thorn〃　trees　spoken　of
  by　the　monk　Theophilus。　The　thorn　trees　were　of
  two　species。　The　pomegranate；　anciently　called　the
  〃Punic　apple；〃　because　it　was　largely　employed　by
  the　Carthagenians　for　the　purposes　of　dyeing　and
  tanning；　and　the　acacia；　known　in　Egyptian　times
  as　the　lotus。　The　former　was　held　in　such　high　esteem
  that　the　Arabians　and　Egyptians　made　it　an　emblem
  to　designate　one　of　their　dieties　and　termed　it
  raman。
  The　products　of　these　thorn；　trees　were　collectively
  used　together　as　ink；　most　of　the　tannin　being　obtained
  from　the　pomegranate；　and　the　gum　from　the　acacia。
  CHAPTER　VIII。
  MEDIAEVAL　INK。
  INK　SECRETAS　OF　THE　TWELFTH　CENTURY　COMPARED　WITH
  EARLIER　ONESAPPEARANCE　OF　TANNO…GALLATE　OF
  IRON　INK　IN　THE　TWELFTH　CENTURYITS　INTRODUCTION
  LOCATES　THE　EPOCH　WHEN　THE　MODERN　INK　OF
  TO…DAY　FIRST　CAME　INTO　VOGUEITS　APPROVAL　AND
  ADOPTION　BY　THE　FATHERS　OF　THE　CHURCHTHE
  INVENTION　NOT　ITALIAN　BUT　ASIATICITS　ARRIVAL
  FROM　ASIA　FROM　THE　WEST　AND　NOT　THE　EASTAPPEARANCE
  ABOUT　THE　SAME　TIME　OF　LINEN　OR　MODERN
  PAPERSETTLEMENT　OF　OLD　CONTROVERSIES　ABOUT
  ANCIENT　SO…CALLED　COTTON　PAPER…DE　VINNE'S　COMMENT
  ABOUT　PAPER　AND　PAPER…MAKINGCURIOUS
  CONTRACT　OF　THE　FOURTEENTH　CENTURY。
  THE　〃Secretas〃　of　the　twelfth　century；　in　so　far　as
  they　relate　to　methods　of　making　ink；　indicate　many
  departures　from　those　contained　in　the　more　ancient
  ones。　Frequent　mention　is　made　of　sour　galls；　aleppo
  galls；　green　and　blue　vitriol；　the　lees　of　wine；　black
  amber；　sugar；　fish…glue　and　a　host　of　unimportant　materials
  as　being　employed　in　the　admixture　of　black
  inks。　Combinations　of　some　of　these　materials　are
  expressed　in　formulas；　the　most　important　one　of
  which　details　with　great　particularity　the　commingling
  together　of　an　infusion　of　nut…galls；　green　vitriol　（sulphate
  of　iron）　and　fish…glue　（isinglass）；　the　two　first
  （tanno…gallate　of　iron）　when　used　alone；　forms　the　sole
  base　of　all　unadulterated　〃gall〃　inks。
  Dates　are　appended　to　some　of　these　ink　and　other
  formulas。　The　〃tanno…gallate　of　iron〃　one　has；　however；
  no　date。　But　as　it　appears　closely　following
  a　date　of　A。　D。　1126；　it　must　have　been　written　about
  that　time。
  Documents；　public　and　private；　bearing　dates　nearly
  contemporary　with　that　era；　written　in　ink　of　like
  type；　are　still　extant；　confirming　in　a　remarkable
  degree　the　〃Secreta〃　formula；　and　establishing　the
  fact　that　the　first　half　of　the　twelfth　century　marks
  the　epoch　in　which　the　〃gall〃　or　modern　ink　of　today
  came　into　vogue。
  Its　adoption　by　the　priests　stamped　it　with　the
  seal　of　the　Church　and　the　arrival　from　the　West
  about　the　same　period　of　flax　or　linen　paper　with　the
  added　fact　that　these　assimilated　so　well　together；
  later　placed　them　both　on　the　popular　basis　which
  has　continued　to　the　present　time。
  While　the　Secreta　which　contains　the　〃gall〃　ink
  formula　is　of　Italian　origin；　the　invention　of　this　ink
  belongs　solely　to　an　Asiatic　country；　from　whence　in
  gradual　stages　by　way　of　Arabia；　Spain　and　France；
  it　finally　reached　Rome。　Thence；　through　the　Church；
  information　about　it　was　conveyed　to　wherever　civilization
  existed。
  We　are　not　confined　in　our　investigations　of　ancient
  MSS。　to　any　particular　locality　or　date；　as　the　twelfth；
  thirteenth；　fourteenth　and　fifteenth　centuries　are　prolific
  of　〃gall〃　ink　monuments　covering　an　immense
  territory。　Such　inks　when　used　unadulterated；　remain
  in　an　almost　pristine　color　condition；　while　the
  other　inks　to　which　some　pigment　or　color　had　been
  added；　probably　to　make　them　more　agreeable　in　appearance
  and　more　free…flowing；　with　a　mistaken　idea
  of　improving　them；　are　much　discolored　and　in　every
  instance　present　but　slight　indications　of　their　original
  condition。
  The　question　of　the　character　of　the　paper　employed
  during　these　eras；　composed　of　different　kinds
  of　fibrous　vegetable　substances；　possesses　some　importance
  when　discussing　its　relationship　to　inks。　Many
  authors　certify　to　the　manufacture　and　use　of　〃cotton〃
  in　the　eleventh；　twelfth　and　later　centuries。
  Madan；　however；　in　treating　this　subject；　makes　the
  following　comments　which　are　in　line　with　my　own
  observations：
  〃Paper　has　for　long　been　the　common　substance
  for　miscellaneous　purposes　of　ordinary　writing；　and
  has　at　all　times　been　formed　exclusively　from　rags
  （chiefly　of　linen）　reduced　to　pull）；　poured　out　on　a
  frame　in　a　thin　watery　sheet；　and　gradually　dried
  and　given　consistence　by　the　action　of　heat。　It
  has　been　a　popular　belief；　found　in　every　book　till
  1886　（now　entirely　disproved；　but　probably　destined
  to　die　hard）；　that　the　common　yellowish　thick
  paper；　with　rough　fibrous　edge；　found　especially　in
  Greek　MSS。　till　the　fifteenth　century；　was　paper　of
  quite　another　sort；　and　made　of　cotton　（charta
  bombycna；　bombyx　being　usually　silk；　but　also
  used　of　any　fine　fibre　such　as　cotton）。　The　microscope
  has　at　last　conclusively　shown　that　these　two
  papers　are　simply　two　different　kinds　of　ordinary
  linen…rag　paper。〃
  De　Vinne　speaking；　of　paper　and　paper…making　says：
  〃The　gradual　development　of　paper…making　in
  Europe　is　but　imperfectly　presented　through　these
  fragmentary　facts。　Paper　may　have　been　made　for
  many　years　before　it　found　chroniclers　who　thought
  the　manufacture　worthy　of　notice。　The　Spanish
  paper…mills　of　Toledo　which　were　at　work　in　the
  year　1085；　and　an　ancient　family　of　paper…makers
  which　was　honored　with　marked　favor　by　the　king
  of　Sicily　in　the　year　1102；　are　carelessly　mentioned
  by　contemporary　writers　as　if　paper…making　was　an
  old　and　established　business。　It　does　not　appear
  that　paper　was　a　novelty　at　a　much　earlier　period。
  The　bulls　of　the　popes　of　the　eighth　and　ninth　centuries
  were　written　on　cotton　card　or　cotton　paper；
  but　no　writer　called　attention　to　this　card；　or　described
  it　as　a　new　material。　It　has　been　supposed
  that　this　paper　was　made　in　Asia；　but　it　could
  have　been　made　in　Europe。　A　paper…like　fabric；
  made　from　the　barks　of　trees；　was　used　for　writing
  by　the　Longobards　in　the　seventh　century；　and　a
  coarse　imitation　of　the　Egyptian　papyrus；　in　the
  form　of　a　strong　brown　paper；　had　been　made　by
  the　Romans　as　early　as　the　third　century。　The
  art　of　compacting　in　a　web　the　macerated　fibres　of
  plants　seems　to　have　been　known　and　practised　to
  some　extent　in　Southern　Europe　long　before　the
  establishment　of　Moorish　paper…mills。
  〃The　Moors　brought　to　Spain　and　Sicily　not　an
  entirely　new　invention；　but　an　improved　method　of
  making　paper；　and　what　was　more　important；　a　culture
  and　civilization　that　kept　this　method　in　constant
  exercise。　It　was　chiefly　fo