inks　employed　on　papyrus；　the　writing　pigments　of
  antiquity　and　the　Middle　Ages　have　scarcely　been
  investigated。　The　dark　to　light…brown　pigment；
  hitherto　a　problem；　universally　used　on　parchment；
  he　contends　upon　historical；　chemical　and　microscopic
  evidence　is　identical　with　oeno…cyanin　and　was　prepared
  for　the　most　part　from　yeast；　and　was　first
  employed　as　a　pigment。　Contrary　to　the　general　opinion
  it　contains　no　iron；　except　frequently　accidental
  traces；　and　after　its　appearance　in　Greece　in　the　third
  century；　it　formed　almost　exclusively　the　ink　of　the
  ancient　manuscripts；　until　displaced　by　the　gallate
  inks；　said　to　have　been　introduced　by　the
  Arabians。　These　accidental　traces　of　iron　were　due
  to　the　employment　of　iron　vessels　in　the　making　of
  the　ink。
  My　own　observations　in　this　direction　confirm　and
  establish　the　fact　that　it　was　the　custom　in　the　early
  centuries　of　the　Christian　era　to　utilize　yeast　or　an
  analogous　compound　as　part　of　the　composition　of　ink；
  to　which　was　added　sepia；　or　the　rind　of　the　pomegranate
  apple　previously　dissolved　by　heat　in　alkaline
  solutions。
  This　analogous　compound　was　probably　the　material
  procured　from　wine　lees　（dregs）；　deposited　after　fermentation
  has　commenced；　and　which　after　considerable
  application　of　heat　yields　not　only　most　of　the
  tannin　contained　in　the　stones　and　fruit　stalks；　but　a
  viscid　compound　characteristic　of　gelatine　and　of　a
  red…purple　color　which　in　course　of　time　changes　to
  brown。
  Bloxam　says　that　the　coloring　matter　of　grapes　and
  of　red　wine　appears　to　be　〃cyanin。〃
  One　of　the　methods　of　treating　wine　lees；　as　translated
  in　the　eighteenth　century　from　an　old　Italian
  secreta；　is　sufficiently　curious　to　partly　quote：
  〃Dry　the　Lees　（dregs）　of　wine　with　a　gentle　fire
  and　fill　with　them　two　third　of　a　large　earthen　Retort；
  place　this　retort　in　a　reverberatory　furnace；　and
  fitting　it　to　a　large　receiver；　give　a　small　fire　to　it　to
  heat　the　Retort　by　degrees；　and　drive　forth　an　insipid
  phlegm；　when　vapours　begin　to　rise；　you　must
  take　out　the　phlegm　and　luting　carefully　the　junctures
  of　your　vessels；　quicken　the　fire　little　by　little
  until　you　find　the　receiver　filled　with　white　clouds；
  continue　it　in　this　condition；　and　you　perceive　the
  receiver　to　cool；　raise　the　fire　to　the　utmost　extremity；
  and　continue　it　so；　until　there　arise　no　more
  vapours。　When　the　vessels　are　cold　unlute　the　receiver；
  and　shaking　it　to　make　the　Volatile　salt；
  which　sticks　to　it；　fall　to　the　bottom；　pour　it　all
  into　a　bolt…head；　fit　it　to　a　Head　with　a　small　receiver；
  lute　well　the　junctures　and　placing　it　in
  sand；　give　a　little　fire　under　it；　and　the　volatile　salt
  will　rise　and　stick　to　the　head；　and　the　top　of　the
  Bolt…head；　take　off　your　head　and　set　on　another
  in　its　place；　gather　your　salt　and　stop　it　tip　quickly；
  for　it　easily　dissolves　into　a　liquor；　continue　the
  fire；　and　take　care　to　gather　the　Salt　according　as
  you　see　it　appear；　but　when　there　rises　no　more
  salt；　a　liquor　will　distill；　of　which　you　must　draw
  about　three　ounces；　and　put　out　the　fire；〃　&c。
  The　〃lees　of　wine；〃　in　connection　with　the　ancient
  methods　of　ink…making　is　also　referred　to　by　the
  younger　Pliny　in　his　twenty…fifth　book；　which　the
  Edinburgh　Review　has　carefully　translated　and
  printed：
  〃INK　（or　literally）　BLACKING。Ink　also　may　be
  set　down　among　the　artificial　（or　compound）
  drugs；　although　it　is　a　mineral　derived　from　two
  sources。　For；　it　is　sometimes　developed　in　the
  form　of　a　saline　efflorescence；or　is　a　real　mineral
  of　sulphureous　colorchosen　for　this　purpose。
  There　have　been　painters　who　dug　up　from　graves
  colored　coals　（CARBON）。　But　all　these　are　useless
  and　new…fangled　notions。　For　it　is　made　from
  soot　in　various　forms；　as　（for　instance）　of　burnt
  rosin　or　pitch。　For　this　purpose；　they　have　built
  manufactories　not　emitting　that　smoke。　The　ink
  of　the　very　best　quality　is　made　from　the　smoke　of
  torches。　An　inferior　article　is　made　from　the　soot
  of　furnaces　and　bath…house　chimneys。　There　are
  some　（manufacturers）　also；　who　employ　the　dried
  lees　of　wine；　and　they　do　say　that　if　the　lees　so
  employed　were　from　good　wine；　the　quality　of　the
  ink　is　thereby　much　improved。　Polygnotus　and
  Micon；　celebrated　painters　at　Athens；　made　their
  black　paint　from　burnt　grape…vines；　they　gave　it
  the　name　of　TRYGYNON。　APELLES；　we　are　told；
  made　HIS　from　burnt　ivory；　and　called　it　elephantina
  'ivory…black。'　Indigo　has　been　recently　imported；
  a　substance　whose　composition　I　have　not
  yet　investigated。　The　dyers　make　theirs　from　the
  dark　crust　that　gradually　accumulates　on　brass…kettles。
  Ink　is　made　also　from　torches　（pine…knots）；
  and　from　charcoal　pounded　fine　in　mortars。　'The
  cuttlefish'　has　a　remarkable　qualify　in　this　respect；
  but　the　coloring…matter　which　it　produces　is　not
  used　in　the　manufacture　of　ink。　All　ink　is　improved
  by　exposure　to　the　sun's　rays。　Book…writers'
  ink　has　gum　mixed　with　it；weavers'　ink　is
  made　up　with　glue。　Ink　whose　materials　have　been
  liquified　by　the　agency　of　an　acid　is　erased　with
  great　difficulty。〃
  There　are　but　few　exceptions　respecting　the　general
  sameness　of　ink　receipts　of　the　succeeding　centuries；
  one　of　which　is　the　〃Pomegranate；〃　credited
  to　the　seventh　century　but　really　belonging　to　an　earlier
  period：
  〃Of　the　dried　Pommegranite　（apple）　rind　take
  an　ounce；　boil　it　in　a　pint　of　water　until　3/4　be
  gone；　add　1/2　pint　of　small　beer　wort　and　once
  more　boil　it　away　so　that　only　a　1/4　pint　remain。
  After　you　shall　have　strained　it；　boiling　hot　through
  a　linnen　cloth　and　it　comes　cold；　being　then　of　a
  glutinous　consistence；　drop　in　a　'bit'　of　Sal　Alkali
  and　add　as　much　warm　water　as　will　bring　it　to　a
  due　fluidity　and　a　gold　brown　color　for　writing　with
  a　pen。〃
  Following　this　formula　and　without　any　modifications；
  I　obtained　an　excellent　ink　of　durable　quality；
  but　of　poor　color；　from　a　standpoint　of　blackness。
  A　less　ancient　〃Secreta；〃　signed　by　the　Italian
  monk　〃Theophilus；〃　who　lived　about　the　commencement
  of　the　eleventh　century；　is　most　interesting：
  〃To　make　ink；　cut　for　yourself　wood　of　the
  thorn…trees　in　April　or　May；　before　they　produce
  flowers　or　leaves；　and　collecting　them　in　small　bundles；
  allow　them　to　lie　in　the　shade　for　two；　three；
  or　four　weeks；　until　they　are　somewhat　dry。　Then
  have　wooden　mallets；　with　which　you　beat　these
  thorns　upon　another　piece　of　hard　wood；　until　you
  peel　off　the　bark　everywhere；　put　which　immediately
  into　a　barrelful　of　water。　When　you　have
  filled　two；　or　three；　or　four；　or　five　barrels　with
  bark　and　water；　allow　them　so　to　stand　for　eight
  days；　until　the　waters　imbibe　all　the　sap　of　the　bark。
  Afterwards　put　this　water　into　a　very　clean　pan；　or
  into　a　cauldron；　and　fire　being　placed　under　it；　boil
  it；　from　time　to　time；　also；　throw　into　the　pan　some
  of　this　bark；　so　that　whatever　sap　may　remain　in　it
  may　be　boiled　out。　When　you　have　cooked　it　a
  little；　throw　it　out；　and　again　put　in　more；　which
  done；　boil　down　the　remaining　water　unto　a　third
  part；　and　then　pouring　it　out　of　this　pan；　put　it
  into　one　smaller；　and　cook　it　until　it　grows　black
  and　begins　to　thicken；　add　one　third　part　of　pure
  wine；　and　putting　it　into　two　or　three　new　pots；
  cook　it　until　you　see　a　sort　of　skin　show　itself　on
  the　surface；　then　taking　these　pots　from　the　fire；
  place　them　in　the　sun　until　the　black　ink　purifies　itself
  from　the　red　dregs。　Afterwards　take　small
  bags　of　parchment　carefully　sewn；　and　bladders；
  and　pouring　in　the　pure　ink；　suspend　them　in　the
  sun　until　all　is　quite　dry；　And　when　dry；　take　from
  it　as　much　as　you　wish；　and　temper　it　with　wine
  over　the　fire；　and；　adding　a　little　vitriol；　write。
  But；　if　it　should　happen　through　negligence　that
  your　ink　be　not　black　enough；　take　a　fragment　of
  the　thickness　of　a　finger　and　putting　it　into　the
  fire；　allow　it　to　glow；　and　throw　it　directly　into　the
  ink。〃
  After　reciting　many　receipts　which　pertain　to　other
  arts；　this　good　old　monk　concludes：
  〃When　you　shall　have　re…read　this　often；　and
  have　committed　it　to　your　tenacious　memory；　you
  shall　thus　recompense　me　for　this　care　of　instruction；
  that；　as　often　as　you　shall　successfully　have
  made　use　of　my　work；　you　pray　for　me　for　the　pity
  of　omnipotent　God；　who　knows　that　I　have　written
  these　things　which　are　here　arranged；　neither
  through　love　of　human　approbation；　nor　through
  desire　of　temporal　reward；　nor　have　I　stolen　anything
  precious　or　rare　through　envious　jealousy；　nor
  have　I　kept　back　anything　reserved　for　myself
  alone；　but；　in　augmentation　of　the　honour　and
  glory　of　His　name；　I　have　consulted　the　progress
  and　hastened　to　aid　the　necessities　of　many　men。〃
  The　〃thorn〃　trees　which　Theophilus　mentions　are
  asserted　by　some　writers　（with　whom　I　do　not
  agree）　to　be　those　commonly　known　as　the　〃Norway
  spruce；〃