about　marriages　and　divorces。
  〃With　the　decline　of　power　in　the　Roman　empire
  came　the　decline　of　literature　throughout　the
  world。　In　the　sixth　century　the　business　of　bookmaking
  had　fallen　into　hopeless　decay。　The　books
  that　had　been　written　were　seldom　read；　and　the
  number　of　readers　diminished　with　every　succeeding
  generation。　Ignorance　pervaded　in　all　ranks　of
  society。　The　Emperor　Justin　I；　who　reigned　between
  the　years　518　and　527；　could　not　write；　and
  was　obliged　to　sign　state　papers　with　the　form　of
  stencil　plate　that　had　been　recommended　by　Quintilian。
  Respect　for　literature　was　dead。　In　the
  year；　476；　Zeno；　the　Isaurian；　burned　120；000　volumes
  in　the　city　of　Constantinople。　During　the
  year　640；　Amrou；　the　Saracen；　fed　the　baths　of
  Alexandria　for　six　months　with　the　500；000　books
  that　had　been　accumulating　for　centuries　in　its
  famous　library　of　the　Serapion。　Yet　books　were
  so　scarce　in　Rome　at　the　close　of　the　seventh　century
  that　Pope　Martin　requested　one　of　his　bishops
  to　supply　them；　if　possible；　from　Germany。　The
  ignorance　of　ecclesiastics　in　high　station　was
  alarming。　During　this　century；　and　for　centuries
  afterward；　there　were　many　bishops　and　archbishops
  of　the　church　who　could　not　sign　their　names。　It
  was　asserted　at　a　council　of　the　church　held　in　the
  year　992；　that　scarcely　a　single　person　was　to　be
  found　in　Rome　itself　who　knew　the　first　elements　of
  letters。　Hallam　says；　'To　sum　up　the　account　of
  ignorance　in　a　word；　it　was　rare　for　a　layman　of
  any　rank　to　know　bow　to　sign　his　name。'　He　repeats
  the　statements　that　Charlemagne　could　not
  write；　and　Frederic　Barbarossa　could　not　read。
  John；　king　of　Bohemia；　and　Philip；　the　Hardy；　king
  of　France；　were　ignorant　of　both　accomplishments。
  The　graces　of　literature　were　tolerated　only　in　the
  ranks　of　the　clergy；　the　layman　who　preferred　letters
  to　arms　was　regarded　as　a　man　of　mean　spirit。
  When　the　Crusaders　took　Constantinople；　in　1204；
  they　exposed　to　public　ridicule　the　pens　and　inkstands
  that　they　found　in　the　conquered　city　as　the
  ignoble　arms　of　a　contemptible　race　of　students。
  〃During　this　period　of　intellectual　darkness；
  which　lasted　from　the　fifth　until　the　fifteenth　century；
  a　period　sometimes　described；　and　not　improperly；
  as　the　dark　ages；　there　was　no　need　for
  any　improvement　in　the　old　method　of　making
  books。　The　world　was　not　then　ready　for　typography。
  The　invention　waited　for　readers　more　than
  it　did　for　types；　the　multitude　of　book　buyers
  upon　which　its　success　depended　had　to　be　created。
  Books　were　needed　as　well　as　readers。　The　treatises
  of　the　old　Roman　sophists　and　rhetoricians；　the
  dialectics　of　Aristotle　and　the　schoolmen；　and　the
  commentaries　on　ecclesiastical　law　of　the　fathers　of
  the　church；　were　the　works　which　engrossed　the
  attention　of　men　of　letters　for　many　centuries　before
  the　invention　of　typography。　Useful　as　these　books
  may　have　been　to　the　small　class　of　readers　for
  whose　benefit　they　were　written；　they　were　of　no
  use　to　a　people　who　needed　the　elements　of　knowledge。〃
  In　the　more　ancient　times；　however；　when　MSS。　books
  （rolls）　were　not　quite　so　plentiful　there　was　seemingly
  no　difficulty　in　obtaining　large　sums　for　them。
  Aristotle；　died　B。　C。　322；　paid　for　a　few　books　of
  Leusippus；　the　philosopher；　three　Attick　talents；　which
  is　about　3；000。　Ptolemy　Philadelphus　is　said　to　have
  given　the　Athenians　fifteen　talents；　an　exemption　from
  tribute　and　a　large　supply　of　provisions　for　the　MSS。
  of　aeschylus；　Sophocles　and　Euripides　written　by
  themselves。
  Arbuthnot；　discussing　this　subject；　remarks　that　Cicero's
  head；　〃which　should　justly　come　into　the　account
  of　Eloquence　brought　twenty…five　Myriads　of
  Drachms；　which　is　the　equivalent　of　40；000。　Also；
  〃the　prices　of　the　magical　books　mentioned　to　be
  burnt　in　the　Acts　of　the　Apostles　is　five。　Myriads　of
  Pieces　of　Silver　or　Drachms。〃
  Picolimini　relates　that　the　equivalent　of　eighty
  golden　crowns　was　demanded　for　a　small　part　of　the
  works　of　Plutarch。
  If　we　are　to　believe　any　of　the　accounts；　the　environment
  of　the　art　of　handwriting　and　handwriting
  materials　at　the　beginning　of　the　fifth　century　had
  contracted　within　a　small　compass；　due　principally　to
  the　general　ignorance　of　the　times。
  As　practiced　it　was　pretty　much　under　the　control
  of　the　different　religious　denominations　and　the　information
  obtainable　about　inks　from　these　sources
  is　but　fragmentary。　What　has　come　down　to　us　of
  this　particular　era　is　mostly　found　on　the　old　written
  Hebrew　relics；　showing　that　they　at　least　had　made
  no　innovations　in　respect　to　the　use　of　their　ritualistic
  deyo。
  The　invention　of　the　quill　pen　in　the　sixth　century
  permitted　a　degree　of　latitude　in　writing　never　before
  known；　the　inks　were　made　thinner　and　necessarily
  were　less　durable　in　character。　Greater　attention　was
  given　to　the　study　and　practice　of　medicine　and
  alchemy　which　were　limited　to　the　walls　of　the
  cloister　and　secret　places。　The　monk　physicians　endeavored
  by　oral　instructions　and　later　by　written
  ones　to　communicate　their　ink…making　methods　not
  only　of　the　black　and　colored；　but　of　secret　or　sympathetic
  inks；　to　their　younger　brethren；　that　they　might
  thus　be　perpetuated。　All　the　traditional　and　practical
  knowledge　they　possessed　was　condensed　into　manuscript
  forms；　additions　from　other　hands　which　included
  numerous　chemical　receipts　for　dyeing　caused
  them　to　multiply；　so　that　as　occasion　required　from
  time　to　time；　they　were　bound　up　together　booklike
  and　then　circulated　among　favored　secular　individuals；
  under　the　name　of　〃Secreta。〃
  The　more　remote　of　such　treatises　which　have　come
  down　to　us　seem　to　indicate　the　trend　of　the　researches
  respecting　what　must　have　been　in　those　times
  unsatisfactory　inks。　Scattered　through　them　appear　a
  variety　of　formulas　which　specify　pyrites　（a　combination
  of　sulphur　and　metal）；　metals；　stones　and　other
  minerals；　soot；　（blue）　vitriol；　calxes　（lime　or　chalk）；
  dye…woods；　berries；　plants；　and　animal　colors；　some　of
  which　if　made　into　ink　could　only　have　been　used
  with　disastrous　results；　when　permanency　is　considered。
  The　black　ink　formulas　of　the　eighth　century　are
  but　few；　and　show　marked　improvement　in　respect　to
  the　constituents　they　call　for；　indicating　that　many
  of　those　of　earlier　times　had　been　tried　and　found
  wanting。　One　in　particular　is　worthy　of　notice　as　it
  names　（blue）　vitriol；　yeast；　the　lees　（dregs）　of　wine
  and　the　rind　of　the　pomegranate　apple；　which　if
  commingled　together　would　give　results　not　altogether
  unlike　the　characteristic　phenomena　of　〃gall〃　ink。
  Confirmation　of　the　employment　of　such　an　ink　on　a
  document　of　the　reign　of　Charlemigne　in　the　beginning
  of　the　ninth　century　on　yellow…brown　Esparto
  （a　Spanish　rush）　paper；　is　still　preserved。　Specimens
  of　〃pomegranate〃　ink；　to　which　lampblack　and
  other　pigments　had　been　added　of　varying　degrees　of
  blackness；　on　MSS。；　but　lessening　in　number　as　late　as
  the　fourteenth　century；　are　still　extant　in　the　British
  Museum　and　other　public　libraries。
  CHAPTER　VI。
  INK　OF　THE　WEST。
  REMARKS　OF　ARCH…DEACON　CARLISLEWHEN　READING
  AND　WRITING　CEASED　TO　BE　MYSTERIESORIGIN
  OF　THE　WORDS　CLERK　AND　SIGNSCARCITY　OF　MANUSCRIPTS
  FOUNDING　OF　IRISH　SCHOOLS　OF　LEARNING
  IN　THE　SEVENTH　CENTURYMONKS　NOT　PERMITTED
  TO　USE　ARTIFICIAL　LIGHT　IN　PREPARING
  MSS。OBSERVATIONS　OF　MADAN　ABOUT　THE　HISTORY
  OF　WRITING　DURING　THE　DARK　AGESINK…
  WRITTEN　MSS。　TREASURES。
  THE　ancient　history　of　the　art　of　writing　in　more
  northern　sections　of　the　Western　world；　William
  Nicolson；　Arch…Deacon　of　Carlisle；　author　of　〃The
  English　Historical　Library；〃　London；　1696；　tells　very
  quaintly：
  〃The　Danes　register'd　their　more　considerable
  transactions　upon　Rocks；　or　on　parts　of　them；
  hewen　into　various　Shapes　and　Figures。　On　these
  they　engrav'd　such　Inscriptions　as　were　proper　for
  their　Heathen　Alters；　Triumphal　Arches；　Sepulchral
  Monuments　and　Genealogical　Histories　of
  their　Ancestors。　Their　writings　of　less　concern
  （as　Letters；　Almanacks；　&c。）　were　engraven　upon
  Wood：　And　because　Beech　was　most　plentiful　in
  Demnark；　（tho　Firr　and　Oak　be　so　in　Norway　and
  Sweden）　and　most　commonly　employ'd　in　these
  Services；　form　the　word　Bog　（which　in　their　Language
  is　the　Name　of　that　sort　of　Wood）　they　and
  all　other　Northern　Nations　have　the　Name　of　Book。
  The　poorer　sort　used　Bark；　and　the　Horns　of　Rain…
  Deer　and　Elks　were　often　finely　polish'd　and　shaped
  into　Books　of　several　Leaves。　Many　of　these　old
  Calendars　are　likewise　upon　Bones　of　Beasts　and
  Fishes：　But　the　Inscriptions　on　Tapestry；　Bells；
  Parchment　and　Paper；　are　of　later　use。
  〃Some　other　Monuments　may　be　known　to　be　of
  a　Danish　Extraction；　tho　they　carry　nothing　of　a
  Runic　Inscription。　Few　of　their　Temples　were
  cover'd；　and　the　largest　observ'd　by　Wormius　（at