witnessed　a　general　revival　of　the　scholastic
  zeal；　poets；　orators；　novelists；　and　writers　increased
  in　numbers　and　grew　in　favour；　savants；　philosophers；
  chemists　and　alchemists；　mathematicians
  and　astronomers；　travellers　and　naturalists；　were
  awakened；　so　to　speak；　by　the　life…giving　breath　of
  the　Middle　Ages；　and　great　scientific　discoveries
  and　admirable　works　on　every　imaginable　subject
  showed　that　the　genius　of　modern　society　was　not
  a　whit　inferior　to　that　of　antiquity。　Printing；　was
  invented；　and　with　that　brilliant　discovery；　the　Middle
  Ages；　which　had　accomplished　their　work　of
  social　renovation；　made　way　for　the　Renaissance；
  which　scattered　abroad　in　profusion　the　prolific　and
  brilliant　creations　of　Art；　Science；　and　Literature。〃
  This　author　to　some　extent　discredits　himself；　however；
  p。　455；　where　he　remarks：
  〃Long　before　the　invasions　of　the　Barbarians
  the　histories　written　by　Greek　and　Latin　authors
  concerning　the　annals　of　the　ancient　peoples　had
  been　falling　into　disfavor。　Even　the　best　of　them
  were　little　read；　for　the　Christians　felt　but　slight
  interest　in　these　pagan　narratives；　and　that　is　why
  works　relating　to　the　history　of　antiquity　were　already
  so　scarce。〃
  Another　authority　writing　on　the　same　subject　discusses
  it　from　a　different　standpoint；　remarking：
  〃As　in　the　middle　ages　invention　busied　itself
  with　instruments　of　torture；　and　as　in　our　days　it
  is　taken　up　almost　as　much　with　the　destructive　engines
  of　war　as　with　the　productive　arts　of　peace；
  so　in　those　early　ages　it　applied　itself　to　the　fabrication
  of　idols；　to　the　mechanism　and　theatrical
  contrivances　for　mysteries　and　religious　ceremonies。
  There　was　then　no　desire　to　communicate
  discoveries；　science　was　a　sort　of　freemasonry；
  and　silence　was　effectually　secured　by　priestly
  anathemas；　men　of　science　were　as　jealous　of　one
  another　as　they　were　of　all　other　classes　of　society。
  If　we　wish　to　form　a　clear　picture　of　this　earliest
  stage　of　civilization；　an　age　which　represents　at
  once　the　naivete　of　childhood　and　the　suspicious
  reticence　of　senility；　we　must　turn　our　eyes　to　the
  priest；　on　the　one　hand；　claiming　as　his　own　all　art
  and　science；　and　commanding　respect　by　his　contemptuous
  silence；　and；　on　the　other　hand；　to　the
  mechanic　plying　the　loom；　extracting　the　Tyrian
  dye；　practising　chemistry；　though　ignorant　of　its
  very　name；　despised　and　oppressed；　and　only　tolerated
  when　he　furnished　Religion　with　her　trappings
  or　War　with　arms。　Thus　the　growth　of
  chemistry　was　slow；　and　by　reason　of　its　backwardness
  it　was　longer　than　any　other　art　in　ridding
  itself　of　the　leading…strings　of　magic　and
  astrology。　Practical　discoveries　must　have　been
  made　many　times　without　science　acquiring　thereby
  any　new　fact。　For　to　prevent　a　new　discovery　from
  being　lost　there　must　be　such　a　combination　of
  favorable　circumstances　as　was　rare　in　that　age　and
  for　many　succeeding　ages。　There　must　be　publicity；
  and　publicity　is　of　quite　recent　growth；　the
  application　of　the　discovery　must　be　not　only　possible
  but　obvious；　as　satisfying　some　want。　But
  wants　are　only　felt　as　civilization　progresses。　Nor
  is　that　all；　for　a　practical　discovery　to　become　a
  scientific　fact　it　must　serve　to　demonstrate　the　error
  of　one　hypothesis；　and　to　suggest　a　new　one；　better
  fitted　for　the　synthesis　of　existing　facts。　But
  （some）　old　beliefs　are　proverbially　obstinate　and
  virulent　in　their　opposition　to　newer　and　truer
  theories　which　are　destined　to　eject　and　replace
  them。　To　sum　up；　even　in　our　own　day；　chemistry
  rests　on　a　less　sound　basis　than　either　physics；　which
  had　the　advantage　of　originating　as　late　as　the　17th
  century；　or　astronomy；　which　dates　from　the　time
  when　the　Chaldean　shepherd　had　sufficiently　provided
  for　his　daily　wants　to　find　leisure　for　gazing
  into　the　starry　Heavens。〃
  The　observations　of　a　still　earlier　commentator　are　of
  the　same　general　nature。　He　says：
  〃In　the　first　ages　of　Christianity；　when　the
  fathers　of　the　Church；　the　Jews；　and　the　Heathen
  philosophers　were　so　warmly　engaged　in　controversy；
  there　is　reason　to　believe　that　pious　frauds
  were　not　uncommon：　and　that　when　one　party　suspected
  forgeries；　instead　of　an　attempt　at　confutation；
  which　might　have　been　difficult；　they　had
  recourse　perhaps　to　a　countermine：　and　either　invented
  altogether；　or　eked　out　some　obscure　traditional
  scraps　by　the　embellishments　of　fancy。
  When　we　consider；　amongst　many　literary　impositions
  of　later　times；　that　Psalmanazar's　history　of
  Formosa　was；　even　in　this　enlightened　age　and
  country　（England；　about　1735）；　considered　by　our
  most　learned　men　as　unquestionably　authentic；　till
  the　confession　of　the　author　discovered　the　secret；
  I　think　it　is　not　difficult　to　conceive　how　forgeries
  of　remote　events；　before　the　invention　of　printing
  and　the　general　diffusion　of　knowledge　might　gain
  an　authority；　and　especially　with　the　zealous；　hardly
  inferior　to　that　of　the　most　genuine　history。〃
  De　Vinne；　however；　in　his　〃Invention　of　Printing；〃
  New　York；　1878；　best　explains　the　status　quo　of　those
  times；　relative　not　only　to　book　（MSS。）　making；　and
  methods　of　circulation；　but　the　causes　which　led　up　to
  their　eventual　disappearance　and　the　literary　darkness
  which　ensued。　His　remarks　are　so　pertinent
  that　they　are　quoted　at　length：
  〃The　civilization　of　ancient　Rome　did　not　require
  printing。　If　all　the　processes　of　typography
  had　been　revealed　to　its　scholars　the　art　would　not
  have　been　used。　The　wants　of　readers　and　writers
  were　abundantly　supplied　by　the　pen。　Papyrus
  paper　was　cheap；　and　scribes　were　numerous；　Rome
  had　more　booksellers　than　it　needed；　and　books
  were　made　faster　than　they　could　be　sold。　The
  professional　scribes　were　educated　slaves；　who；　fed
  and　clothed　at　nominal　expense；　and　organized　under
  the　direction　of　wealthy　publishers；　were　made
  so　efficient　in　the　production　of　books；　that　typography；
  in　an　open　competition；　could　have　offered　few　advantages。
  〃Our　knowledge　of　the　Roman　organization　of
  labor　in　the　field　of　bookmaking　is　not　as　precise　as
  could　be　wished；　but　the　frequent　notices　of　books；
  copyists　and　publishers；　made　by　many　authors
  during　the　first　century；　teach　us　that　books
  were　plentiful。　Horace；　the　elegant　and　fastidious
  man　of　letters；　complained　that　his　books　were　too
  common；　and　that　they　were　sometimes　found　in
  the　hands　of　vulgar　snobs　for　whose　entertainment
  they　were　not　written。　Martial；　the　jovial　man　of
  the　world；　boasted　that　his　books　of　stinging　epigrams
  were　to　be　found　in　everybody's　hands　or
  pockets。　Books　were　read　not　only　in　the　libraries；
  but　at　the　baths；　in　the　porticoes　of　houses；　at
  private　dinners　and　in　mixed　assemblies。　The
  business　of　bookmaking　was　practised　by　too　many
  people；　and　some　were　incompetent。　Lucian；　who
  had　a　keen　perception　of　pretense　in　every　form；
  ridicules　the　publishers　as　ignoramuses。　Strabo；
  who　probably　wrote　illegibly；　says　that　the　books
  of　booksellers　were　incorrect。
  〃The　price　of　books　made　by　slave　labor　was
  necessarily　low。　Martial　says　that　his　first　book　of
  epigrams　was　sold　in　plain　binding　for　six　sesterces；
  about　twenty…four　cents　of　American　money；　the
  same　book　in　sumptuous　binding　was　valued　at　five
  denarii；　about　eighty　cents。　He　subsequently　complained
  that　his　thirteenth　book　was　sold　for　only
  four　sesterces；　about　sixteen　cents。　He　frankly
  admits　that　half　of　this　sum　was　profit；　but　intimates；
  somewhat　ungraciously；　that　the　publisher　Tryphon
  gave　him　too　small　a　share。　Of　the　merits　of　this
  old　disagreement　between　the　author　and　publisher
  we　have　not　enough　of　facts　to　justify　an　opinion。
  We　learn　that　some　publishers；　like　Tryphon　and
  the　brothers　Sosii；　acquired　wealth；　but　there　are
  many　indications　that　publishing　was　then；　as　it　is
  now；　one　of　the　most　speculative　kinds　of　business。
  One　writer　chuckles　over　the　unkind　fate　that　sent
  so　many　of　the　unsold　books　of　rival　authors　from
  the　warehouses　of　the　publisher；　to　the　shops　of
  grocers　and　bakers；　where　they　were　used　to　wrap
  up　pastry　and　spices；　another　writer　says　that　the
  unsold　stock　of　a　bookseller　was　sometimes　bought
  by　butchers　and　trunk　makers。
  〃The　Romans　not　only　had　plenty　of　books　but
  they　had　a　manuscript　daily　newspaper；　the　Acta
  Diurna；　which　seems　to　have　been　a　record　of　the
  proceedings　of　the　senate。　We　do　not　know　how
  it　was　written；　nor　how　it　was　published；　but　it
  was　frequently　mentioned　by　contemporary　writers
  as　the　regular　official　medium　for　transmitting
  intelligence。　It　was　sent　to　subscribers　in　distant
  cities；　and　was；　sometimes；　read　to　an　assembled
  army。　Cicero　mentions　the　Acta　as　a　sheet　in
  which　he　expected　to　find　the　city　news　and　gossip
  about　marriages　and　divorces。
  〃With　the　decline　of　power　in　the　Roman　empire
  came　the　decline　of