leaden　bullae。
  The　custom　of　dividing　wax；　ivory；　wood　and　metal
  MSS。　into　pages　and　in　this　way　into　book　form　is　said
  by　Suetonius　to　have　been　introduced　by　Julius　Caesar；
  whose　letters　to　the　Senate　were　so　made　up；　and
  after　whose　time　the　practice　became　usual　for　all
  documents　either　addressed　to；　or　issuing　from　that
  body；　or　to　or　from　the　Emperors。　As　that　form　subsequently
  crept　into　general　use；　the　books　were　known
  as　〃codices；〃　and　hence　the　ordinary　term　as　applied
  to　manuscript　volumes。
  All　classes　of　〃books；〃　the　reeds　for　writing　in
  them；　the　inkstands；　and　the　〃capsae〃　or　〃scrinia；〃
  the　boxes　in　which　the　〃scapi〃　or　rolls　were　kept；
  are　minutely　portrayed　in　ancient　wall…paintings　and
  ivory　diptychs　（double　tablets）；　and　which　may　belong
  to　a　period　near　the　beginning　of　the　Christian　era。
  Pliny　and　Dioscorides　have　given　the　formulas　for
  the　writing　inks　used　by　the　Greek　and　Roman　scribes
  immediately　before　and　during　their　time。　Pliny　declares
  that　the　ink　of　the　bookmakers　was　made　of
  soot；　charcoal　and　gum；　although　he　does　not　state
  what　fluid　was　employed　to　commingle　them。　He　does；
  however；　mention　to　an　occasional　use　of　some　acid
  （vinegar）　to　give　the　ink　a　binding　property　on　the
  papyrus。
  Dioscorides；　however；　specifies　the　proportions　of
  this　〃soot〃　ink。　Another　formula　alluded　to　by　the
  same　author　calls　for　a　half　ounce　each　of　copperas
  （blue）　and　ox…glue；　with　half　pound　of　smoke　black
  made　from　burned　resin。　He　adds；　〃is　a　good　application
  in　cases　of　gangrene　and　is　useful　in　scalds；　if　a
  little　thickened　and　employed　as　a　salve。〃　De　Vinne
  speaks　of　this　as　a　〃crude〃　receipt　which　will　enable
  one　to　form　a　correct　opinion　of　the　quality　of
  scientific　knowledge　then　applied　to　medicine　and　the
  mechanical　arts；　also　that　these　mixtures　which　are
  more　like　shoe　blacking　than　writing　fluid　were　used
  with　immaterial　modifications　by　the　scribes　of　the
  dark　ages。
  The　old　Greeks　and　Romans　had　no　substitute　for
  the　papyrus；　which　was　so　brittle　that　it　could　not　be
  folded　or　creased。　It　could　not　be　bound　up　in　books；
  nor　could　it　be　rolled　up　unsupported。　It　was　secure
  only　when　it　had　been　wound　around　a　wooden　or
  metal　roller。
  After　the　wholesale　destruction　of　the　libraries　of
  ink…written　MSS。；　the　black　inks　began　to　fall　into　disuse；
  their　value　in　respect　to　quality　gradually　deteriorated；
  caused　by　the　displacement　of　gummy
  vehicles；　and　a　consequent　absence　of　any　chance　of
  union　between　the　parchment　or　papyrus　and　the　dry
  black　particles；　which　could　be　〃blown〃　or　washed
  off。　To　employ　any　other　kind　of　ink　except　one　of
  natural　origin　like　the　juice　of　berries　which　soon
  disappeared；　was　forbidden　by　prevailing　religious
  customs。　Such　conditions　naturally　merged　into
  others；　in　the　shape　of　〃ink〃　substitutes　for　writing；
  the　stylus；　with　its　accompanying　sheets　or　tablets
  of　ivory；　wood；　metal　and　wax　came　into　popular
  vogue　and　so　continued　for　many　centuries；　even　after
  the　employment　of　ink　for　writing　purposes　had　been
  resumed。
  Ovid；　in　his　story　of　Caunus　and　Byblis；　illustrates
  the　use　of　the　tables　（tablets）；　and　he　lived　at　the　time
  of　the　birth　of　Christ；　thus　translated：
  〃Then　fits　her　trembling　hands　to　Write：
  One　holds　the　Wax；　the　Style　the　other　guides；
  Begins；　doubts；　writes；　and　at　the　Table　chides；
  Notes；　razes；　changes　oft；　dislikes；　approves；
  Throws　all　aside；　resumes　what　she　removes。
  *　　　*　　　　*　　　　*　　　　*　　　　*　　　　*　　　　*
  〃The　Wax　thus　filled　with　her　successless　wit；
  She　Verses　in　the　utmost　margin　writ。〃
  He　also　makes　reference　to　inks；　in　the　passage
  taken　from　his　first　elegy；　〃Ad　Librum：〃
  〃Nec　te　purpureo　velent　vaccinia　succo；
  Non　est　conveniens　luctibus　ille　color。
  Nec　titulus　minio；　nec　cedro　charta　notetur。
  Candida　nec　nigra　cornua　fronte　geras。〃
  which　Davids　translates　as　follows：
  〃TO　HIS　BOOK。
  〃Nor　shall　huckleberries　stain　（literally　veil）　thee　with　purple
  juice：
  That　color　is　not　becoming　to　lamentations。
  Nor　shall　title　（or　head…letter）　be　marked　with　vermillion；　or
  paper　with　cedar；
  Thou　shalt　carry　neither　white　nor　black　horns　on　thy　forehead
  （or　front；　or　frontispiece）。〃
  The　traditions　handed　down　as　of　this　era　relating
  to　the　efforts　to　find　some　substitute　for　〃Indian〃
  ink　which　would　not　only　〃bind〃　to　parchment　and
  vellum　but　also　would　be　satisfactory　to　the　priests；
  are　more　or　less　confirmed　by　the　younger　Pliny；　and
  makes　it　safe　to　assume　that　several　were　invented
  and　employed　in　writing；　though　possessing　but　little
  lasting　qualities。　Their　use　and　natural　disappearance
  is　perhaps　the　real　cause　of　the　fact　that　there　are　no
  original　MSS。　extant　dating　as　of　or　belonging　to　the
  time　immediately　preceding　or　following　the　birth　of
  Christ；　or　indeed　until　long　after　his　death。
  There　is　some　authority　though　for　the　statement
  that　at　this　time　two　vitriolic　substances　were　used　in
  the　preparation　of　black　ink；a　slime　or　sediment
  （Salsugo）　and　a　yellow　vitriolic　earth　（Misy）。　This
  last…named　mineral；　is　unquestionably　the　same　natural
  chemical　mentioned　by　writers；　which　about　the　end
  of　the　first　century　was　designated　〃kalkanthum〃　or
  〃chalkanthum〃　and　possessed　not　only　the　appearance
  of；　but　the　virtues　of　what　we　know　as　blue
  copperas　or　sulphate　of　copper。　It　continued　in　use
  as　long　as　men　were　unacquainted　with　the　art　of
  lixiviating　salt；　or；　in　other　words；　as　long　as　they　had
  no　vitriol　manufactories。　Commingled　with　lampblack；
  bitumen　or　like　black　substances　in　gummy
  water；　it　was　acceptable　to　the　priests　for　ritualistic
  writings　and　was　in　general　vogue　for　several　centuries
  thereafter　under　the　name　of　（blue）　〃vitriolic〃
  ink；　notwithstanding　the　fact　that　there　could　not　be
  any　lasting　chemical　union　between　such　materials。
  It　was　the　so…called　〃vitriolic〃　ink；　which　is　said
  to　have　〃corroded　the　delicate　leaves　of　the　papyrus
  and　to　have　eaten　through　both　parchment　and
  vellum。〃
  These　deductions；　however；　do　not　agree　with　some
  of　the　historians　and　scholars　like　Noel　Humphreys；
  author　of　the　〃Origin　and　Progress　of　the　Art　of
  Writing；〃　London；　1855；　a　recognized　authority　on　the
  subject　of　ancient　MSS。；　who　but　repeats　in　part　the
  text　of　earlier　writers；　when　he　says；　p。　101：
  〃Examples　of　early　Greek　MSS。　of　the　last　century
  previous　to　the　Christian　era　are　not　confined
  to　Egyptian　sources；　the　buried　city　of　Herculaneum；
  in　Italy；　partially　destroyed　about　seventy…
  nine　years　before　the　Christian　era；　and　injured　by
  subsequeut　eruptions；　till　totally　destroyed　by　the
  most　violent　eruption　of　Vesuvius　on　record；　that
  of　the　year　471　A。　D。　having　yielded　several
  specimens。〃
  The　MSS。　examples　mentioned　in　the　citation；　must
  of　necessity　refer　to　specimens　of　writing　made　with
  〃vitriolic〃　and　even　more　ancient　inks。　They　are　to
  be　considered　in　conjunction　with　the　historical　fact
  that　these　cities　were　buried　for　more　than　sixteen
  hundred　years；　counting　from　the　first　eruption；　before
  they　were　brought　to　light　（Herculaneum　was　discovered
  A。　D。　1713　and　Pompeii；　forty　years　later）；
  also　that　they　must　have　been　subjected　to　intense
  heat　and　a　long　period　of　decay　which　could　only　operate
  to　rob　them　of　all　traces　of　natural　ink　phenomena。
  Furthermore；　the　information　Mr。　Humphreys
  seeks　to　convey；　dates　contemporaneously　with　the　first
  eruption　of　Vesuvius；　which　occurred　seventy…nine
  years　AFTER　the　Christian　era　and　not　seventy…nine
  years　BEFORE　it。
  This　stupendous　blunder　involves　a　period　of　one
  hundred　and　fifty…eight　years；　if　it　is　rectified；　the
  〃early　Greek　MSS。〃　are　shown　to　emanate　from　the
  second　half　of　the　first　century　following　the　birth　of
  Christ　and　confirming　to　some　extent　the　deductions
  hereinbefore　made；　although　the　probabilities　are　that
  they　belong　to　later　periods；　included　in　the　third　and
  fourth　centuries。
  It　is　affirmed　that　the　eruption　of　Mt。　Vesuvius
  A。　D。　79；　did　not　entirely　destroy　the　cities　of　Herculaneum
  and　Pompeii；　and　that　they　emerged　from　their
  ruins　in　the　reign　of　the　Emperor　Titus。　They　are
  also　mentioned　as　inhabited　cities　in　the　chart　of
  Peutinger；　which　is　of　the　date　of　Constantine。
  The　next　eruption；　A。　D。　471；　was　probably　the　most
  frightful　on　record　if　we　exclude　the　volcanic　eruption
  of　Mt。　Pelee；　which　occurred　in　Martinique；　West
  Indies；　in　1902；　destroying　thirty　thousand　human
  beings　in　fifteen　minutes　and　devastating　nearly　the
  entire　island。　From　Marcellinus　we　learn　that　the
  ashes　of　the　Vesuvius　volcano　were　vomited　over　a
  great　portion　of　Europe；　reaching　to　Constantinople；
  where　a　festival　was　instituted　in　commemoration　of
  the　strange　phenomenon。　After　this；　we　hear　no
  more　of　these　cities；　but　the　portion　of　th