Forty　Centuries　of　Ink
  by　David　N。　Carvalho
  OR
  A　CHRONOLOGICAL　NARRATIVE　CONCERNING
  INK　AND　ITS　BACKGROUNDS
  INTRODUCING　INCIDENTAL　OBSERVATIONS　AND
  DEDUCTIONS；　PARALLELS　OF　TIME　AND　COLOR
  PHENOMENA；　BIBLIOGRAPHY；　CHEMISTRY；
  POETICAL　EFFUSIONS；　CITATIONS；
  ANECDOTES　AND　CURIOSA　TOGETHER　WITH
  SOME　EVIDENCE　RESPECTING　THE
  EVANESCENT　CHARACTER　OF
  MOST　INKS　OF　TO…DAY　AND
  AN　EPITOME　OF　CHEMICO…LEGAL　INK。
  BY
  DAVID　N。　CARVALHO
  PREFACE。
  The　unfortunate　conditions　surrounding　the　almost
  universal　use　of　the　oddly　named　commercial　and　with
  few　exceptions　record　inks；　and　the　so…called　modern
  paper；　is　the　motive　for　the　writing　of　this　book。
  The　numerous　color　products　of　coal　tar；　now　so
  largely　employed　in　the　preparation　of　ink；　and　the
  worse　material　utilized　in　the　manufacture　of　the　hard…
  finished　writing　papers；　menace　the　future　preservation
  of　public　and　other　records。　Those　who　occupy
  official　position　and　who　can　help　to　ameliorate　this
  increasing　evil；　should　begin　to　do　so　without　delay。
  Abroad　England；　Germany　and　France　and　at　home
  Massachusetts　and　Connecticut　have　sought　to　modify
  these　conditions　by　legislation　and　our　National　Treasury
  Department　only　last　year；　in　establishing　a　standard
  for　its　ink；　gives　official　recognition　of　these
  truths。
  There　is　no　〃History　of　Ink；〃　but　of　ink　history
  there　is　a　wealth　of　material；　although　historians　have
  neglected　to　record　information　about　the　very　substance
  by　which　they　sought　to　keep　and　transmit　the
  chronicles　they　most　desired　to　preserve。　From　the
  beginning　of　the　Christian　era　to　the　present　day；
  〃Ink〃　literature；　exclusive　of　its　etymology；　chemical
  formulas；　and　methods　of　manufacture；　has　been　confined
  to　brief　statements　in　the　encyclopedias；　which
  but　repeat　each　other。　A　half　dozen　original　articles；
  covering　only　some　particular　branch　together　with　a
  few　treatises　more　general　in　their　ramifications　of
  the　subject；　can　also　be　found。　Seventy　lines　about
  〃writing　ink〃　covering　its　history　for　nearly　four
  thousand　years　is　all　that　is　said　in　〃The　Origin　and
  Progress　of　Handwriting；〃　a　revised　book　of　hundreds
  of　pages　of　Sir　Thomas　Astle；　London；　1876；　and　once
  deemed　the　very　highest　authority。
  The　mass　of　ancient　and　comparatively　modern　documents
  which　we　have　inherited；　chronicle　nothing
  about　the　material　with　which　they　were　written。
  The　more　valuable　of　them　are　disfigured　by　the
  superscription　of　newer　writings　over　the　partially
  erased　earlier　ones；　thus　rendering　the　work　of
  ascertaining　their　real　character　most　difficult。
  Nevertheless；　patient　research　and　advanced　science　have
  enabled　us　to　intelligently　study　and　investigate；　and
  from　the　evidence　thus　gained；　to　state　facts　and
  formulate　opinions　that　may　perhaps　outlast　criticism。
  The　bibliographical　story　of　〃Ink〃　is　replete　with
  many　interesting　episodes；　anecdotes　and　poetical　effusions。
  Its　chemical　history　is　a　varied　and　phenomenal
  one。　Before　the　nineteenth　century　the　ink
  industry　was　confined　to　the　few。　Since　then；　it　has
  developed　into　one　of　magnificent　proportions。　The
  new　departure；　due　to　the　discovery　and　development
  of　the　〃Aniline〃　family　of　fugitive　colors；　is　noteworthy
  as　being　a　step　backward　which　may　take　years　to　retrace。
  The　criminal　abuse　of　ink　is　not　infrequent　by　evil…
  disposed　persons　who　try　by　secret　processes　to　reproduce
  ink　phenomena　on　ancient　and　modern　documents。
  While　it　is　possible　to　make　a　new　ink　look
  old；　the　methods　that　must　be　employed；　will　of　themselves
  reveal　to　the　examiner　the　attempted　fraud；　if
  he　but　knows　how　to　investigate。
  How　to　accomplish　this　as　well　as　to　give　a　chronological
  history　on　the　subject　of　inks　generally；　both
  as　to　their　genesis；　the　effect　of　time　and　the　elements；
  the　determination　of　the　constituents　and　the　constitution
  of　inks；　their　value　as　to　lasting　qualities；　their
  removal　and　restoration；　is　the　object　of　this　work。
  There　is　also　included　many　court　cases　where　the
  matter　of　ink　was　in　controversy；　information　respecting
  ancient　MSS。　and　the　implements　and　other　accessories
  of　ink　which　have　from　time　to　time　been
  employed　in　the　act　of　writing。
  To　make　a　comprehensive　review　of　the　past　in　its
  relationship　to　ink　has　been　my　aim。　In　the　construction
  of　this　work　recourse　has　been　had　to　the　so…
  called　original　sources　of　information。　In　these；　the
  diversity　of　their　incomplete　statements　about　different
  countries　and　epochs　has　offered　many　obstacles。
  In　presenting　my　own　deductions　and　inferences；　it　is
  with　a　desire　to　remove　any　impressions　as　to　this
  volume　being　a　mere　compilation。　〃Facts　are　the
  data　of　all　just　reasoning；　and　the　elements　of　all　real
  knowledge。　It　follows　that　he　is　a　wise　man　who　possesses
  the　greatest　store　of　facts　on　a　given　subject。
  A　book；　therefore；　which　assembles　facts　from　their
  scattered　sources；　may　be　considered　as　a　useful　and
  important　auxiliary　to　those　who　seek　them。〃　A　prolonged
  and　continuous　intercourse　for　over　a　quarter
  of　a　century　with　ancient　and　modern　MSS。；　with
  books　and　other　literature；　with　laymen　and　chemists；
  with　students　and　manufacturers；　together　with　the
  information　and　knowledge　derived　from　experiment
  and　study　of　results　may　enable　the　author　to　make
  the　subject　fairly　clear。　Effort　has　been　made　to　avoid
  technical　words　and　phrases　in　that　portion　treating
  of　the　Chemistry　of　Inks。
  This　work　will　no　doubt　be　variously　considered。
  Criticism　is　expected；　indeed　it　is　gladly　invited；　for
  thereby　may　follow　controversy；　discussion　and　perhaps
  legislation；　which　will　bring　about　results　beneficial
  to　those　who　are　to　follow　after　us。
  CONTENTS
  I。　GENESIS　OF　INK
  II。　ANTIQUITY　OF　INK
  III。　CLASSICAL　INK　AND　ITS　EXODUS
  IV。　CLASSICAL　INK　AND　ITS　EXODUS　（Continued）
  V。　REVIVAL　OF　INK
  VI。　INK　OF　THE　WEST
  VII。　EARLY　MEDIAEVAL　INK
  VIII。　MEDIAEVAL　INK
  IX。　END　OF　MEDIAEVAL　INK
  X。　RENAISSANCE　INK
  XI。　ANCIENT　INK　TREATISES
  XII。　STUDY　OF　INK
  XIII。　STUDY　OF　INK
  XIV。　CLASSIFICATIONS　OF　INK
  XV。　OFFICIAL　AND　LEGAL　INK
  XVI。　ENDURING　INK
  XVII。　INK　PHENOMENA
  XVIII。　INK　CHEMISTRY
  XIX。　FRAUDULENT　INK　BACKGROUNDS
  XX。　FUGITIVE　INK。
  XXI。　ANCIENT　AND　MODERN　INK　RECEIPTS
  XXII。　INK　INDUSTRY。
  XXIII。　CHEMICO…LEGAL　INK
  XXIV。　CHEMICO…LEGAL　INK　（Continued）
  XXV。　INK　UTENSILS　OF　ANTIQUITY
  XXVI。　INK　UTENSILS　（Quill　PEN　v。　Steel　Pen）
  XXVII。　SUBSTITUTES　FOR　INK　UTENSILS　（〃Lead〃　and　other　Pencils）
  XXVIII。　ANCIENT　INK　BACKGROUNDS　（The　Origin　of　Papyrus）
  XXIX。　ANCIENT　INK　BACKGROUNDS　（Parchment　and　Vellum）
  XXX。　MODERN　INK　BACKGROUNDS　（True　Paper）
  XXXI。　MODERN　INK　BACKGROUNDS　（Wood　Paper　and　Safety　Paper）
  XXXII。　CURIOSA　（Ink　and　other　Writing　Materials）
  FORTY　CENTURIES　OF　INK
  CHAPTER　I。
  GENESIS　OF　INK。
  THE　ORIGIN　OF　INKCOMPOSITION　OF　THE　COLORED
  INKS　OF　ANTIQUITYANCIENT　NAMES　FOR　BLACK
  INKSMETHODS　OF　THEIR　MANUFACTURETHE　INVENTION
  OF　〃INDIAN〃　INKTHE　ART　OF　DYEING
  HISTORICALLY　CONSIDEREDTHE　SYMBOLIC　ESTIMATION
  OF　COLORSTHE　EMPLOYMENT　OF　TINCTURES
  AS　INKSCONSIDERATION　OF　THE　ANTIQUITY
  OF　ARTIFICIAL　INKS　AND　THE　BLACK　INKS　OF　INTERMEDIATE
  TIMESORIGIN　OF　THE　COLORED　PIGMENTS
  OF　ANTIQUITY…CITATIONS　FROM　HERODOTUS；
  PLINY　AND　ARBUTHNOTPRICES　CURRENT；　OF　ANCIENT
  INKS　AND　COLORSWHY　THE　NATURAL　INKS
  FORMERLY　EMPLOYED　ARE　NOT　STILL　EXTANTTHE
  KIND　OF　INK　EMPLOYED　BY　THE　PRIESTS　IN　THE
  TIME　OF　MOSESILLUSTRATIVE　HISTORY　OF　THE
  EGYPTIANS　IN　ITS　RELATIONSHIP　TO　WRITING
  IMPLEMENTSTHE　USE　OF　BOTH　RED　AND　BLACK　INK
  IN　JOSEPH'S　TIMEITS　OTHER　HISTORY　PRECEDING
  THE　DEPARTURE　OF　ISRAEL　FROM　EGYPTTHE
  DISAPPEARANCE　OF　ALL　BUT　A　FEW　KINDS　OF
  INKINK　TRADITIONS　AND　THEIR　VALUESTORY
  ABOUT　THE　ORACLES　OF　THE　SIBYLSHOW　THE　ANCIENT
  HISTORIANS　SOUGHT　TO　BE　MISLEADINGILLUSTRATIVE
  ANECDOTE　BY　RICHARDSON：
  THE　origin　of　Ink　belongs　to　an　era　following　the
  invention　of　writing。　When　the　development　of　that
  art　had　advanced　beyond　the　age　of　stone　inscription
  or　clay　tablet；　some　material　for　marking　with　the
  reed　and　the　brush　was　necessary。　It　was　not　difficult
  to　obtain　black　or　colored　mixtures　for　this　purpose。
  With　their　advent；　forty　centuries　or　more　ago；　begins
  the　genesis　of　ink。
  The　colored　inks　of　antiquity　included　the　use　of　a
  variety　of　dyes　and　pigmentary　colors；　typical　of　those
  employed　in　the　ancient　art　of　dyeing；　in　which　the
  Egyptians　excelled　and　still　thought　by　many　to　be
  one　of　the　lost　arts。　The　Bible　and　alleged　contemporary
  and　later　literature　make　frequent　mention　of
  black　and　many　colors　of　brilliant　hues。
  In　tracing　the　arts　of　handwriting　and　dyeing；
  some　definite　facts　are　to　be　predicated　as　to　the　most
  remote　history　of　ink。
  The　Hebrew　word　for　ink　is　deyo；　so　called　from