Aeroplanes
  by　J。　S。　Zerbe
  This　work　is　not　intended　to　set　forth　the　exploits　of　aviators
  nor　to　give　a　history　of　the　Art。　It　is　a　book　of　instructions
  intended　to　point　out　the　theories　of　flying；　as　given　by　the
  pioneers；　the　practical　application　of　power　to　the　various
  flying　structures；　how　they　are　built；　the　different　methods　of
  controlling　them；　the　advantages　and　disadvantages　of　the　types
  now　in　use；　and　suggestions　as　to　the　directions　in　which
  improvements　are　required。
  It　distinctly　points　out　wherein　mechanical　flight　differs
  from　bird　flight；　and　what　are　the　relations　of　shape；　form；　size
  and　weight。　It　treats　of　kites；　gliders　and　model　aeroplanes；
  and　has　an　Interesting　chapter　on　the　aeroplane　and　its　uses　In
  the　great　war。　All　the　illustrations　have　been　specially　prepared
  for　the　work。
  Every　Boy's　Mechanical　Library
  AEROPLANES
  BY
  J。　S。　ZERBE；　M。　E。
  Author　of　AutomobilesMotors
  COPYRIGHT；　1915；　BY
  CUPPLES　&　LEON　COMPANY
  NY
  CONTENTS
  INTRODUCTORY
  CHAPTER　I。　THEORIES　AND　FACTS　ABOUT　FLYING
  The　〃Science〃　of　Aviation。　Machine　Types。　Shape
  or　Form　not　Essential。　A　Stone　as　a　Flying　Machine。
  Power　the　Great　Element。　Gravity　as　Power。　Mass
  and　Element　in　Flying。　Momentum　a　Factor。　Resistance。
  How　Resistance　Affects　Shape。　Mass　and　Resistance。
  The　Early　Tendency　to　Eliminate　Momentum。
  Light　Machines　Unstable。　The　Application　of
  Power。　The　Supporting　Surfaces。　Area　not　the　Essential
  Thing。　The　Law　of　Gravity。　Gravity。　Indestructibility
  of　Gravitation。　Distance　Reduces　Gravitational
  Pull。　How　Motion　Antagonizes　Gravity。　A
  Tangent。　Tangential　Motion　Represents　Centrifugal
  Pull。　Equalizing　the　Two　Motions。　Lift　and　Drift。
  Normal　Pressure。　Head　Resistance。　Measuring　Lift
  and　Drift。　Pressure　at　Different　Angles。　Difference
  Between　Lift　and　Drift　in　Motion。　Tables　of　Lift　and
  Drift。　Why　Tables　of　Lift　and　Drift　are　Wrong。
  Langley's　Law。　Moving　Planes　vs。　Winds。　Momentum
  not　Considered。　The　Flight　of　Birds。　The
  Downward　Beat。　The　Concaved　Wing。　Feather　Structure
  Considered。　Webbed　Wings。　The　Angle　of　Movement。
  An　Initial　Movement　or　Impulse　Necessary。　A
  Wedging　Motion。　No　Mystery　in　the　Wave　Motion。
  How　Birds　Poise　with　Flapping　Wings。　Narrow…
  winged　Birds。　Initial　Movement　of　Soaring　Birds。
  Soaring　Birds　Move　Swiftly。　Muscular　Energy
  Exerted　by　Soaring　Birds。　Wings　not　Motionless。
  CHAPTER　II。　PRINCIPLES　OF　AEROPLANE　FLIGHT
  Speed　as　one　of　the　Elements。　Shape　and　Speed。
  What　〃Square　of　the　Speed〃　Means。　Action　of　a
  〃Skipper。〃　Angle　of　Incidence。　Speed　and　Surface。
  Control　of　the　Direction　of　Flight。　Vertical　Planes。
  CHAPTER　III。　THE　FORM　OR　SHAPE　OF　FLYING　MACHINES
  The　Theory　of　Copying　Nature。　Hulls　of　Vessels。
  Man　Does　not　Copy　Nature。　Principles　Essential；　not
  Forms。　Nature　not　the　Guide　as　to　Forms。　The　Propeller
  Type。　Why　Specially…designed　Forms　Improve
  Natural　Structures。　Mechanism　Devoid　of　Intelligence。
  A　Machine　Must　Have　a　Substitute　for　Intelligence。
  Study　of　Bird　Flight　Useless。　Shape　of
  Supporting　Surface。　The　Trouble　Arising　From　Outstretched
  Wings。　Density　of　the　Atmosphere。　Elasticity
  of　the　Air。　〃Air　Holes。〃　Responsibility　for
  Accidents。　The　Turning　Movement。　Centrifugal　Action：
  The　Warping　Planes。
  CHAPTER　IV。　FORE　AND　AFT　CONTROL
  The　Bird　Type　of　Fore　and　Aft　Control。　Angle　and
  Direction　of　Flight。　Why　Should　the　Angle　of　the
  Body　Change。　Changing　Angle　of　Body　not　Safe。　A
  Non…changing　Body。　Descending　Positions　by　Power
  Control。　Cutting　off　the　Power。　The　Starting　Movement。
  The　Suggested　Type。　The　Low　Center　of　Gravity。
  Fore　and　Aft　Oscillations。　Application　of　the
  New　Principle。　Low　Weight　not　Necessary　with　Synchronously…
  moving　wings。
  CHAPTEB　V。　DIFFERENT　MACHINE　TYPES　AND　THEIR　CHARACTERISTICS
  The　Helicopter。　Aeroplanes。　The　Monoplane。　Its
  Advantages。　Its　Disadvantages。　The　Bi…plane。　Stability
  in　Bi…planes。　The　Orthopter。　Nature's　Type
  not　Uniform。　Theories　About　Flight　of　Birds。　Instinct。
  The　Mode　of　Motion。　The　Wing　Structure。
  The　Wing　Movement。　The　Helicopter　Motion。
  CHAPTER　VI。　THE　LIFTING　SURFACES　OF　AEROPLANES
  Relative　Speed　and　Angle。　Narrow　Planes　Most　Effective。
  Stream　Lines　Along　a　Plane。　The　Center　of
  Pressure。　Air　Lines　on　the　Upper　Side　of　a　Plane。
  Rarefied　Area。　Rarefaction　Produced　by　Motion。　The
  Concaved　Plane。　The　Center　of　Pressure。　Utilizing
  the　Rarefied　Area。　Changing　Center　of　Pressure。
  Plane　Monstrosities。　The　Bird　Wing　Structure。
  Torsion。　The　Bat's　Wing。　An　Abnormal　Shape。　The
  Tail　as　a　Monitor。
  CHAPTER　VII。　ABNORMAL　FLYING　STUNTS　AND　SPEEDS
  Lack　of　Improvements　in　Machines。　Men　Exploited
  and　not　Machines。　Abnormal　Flying　of　no　Value。
  The　Art　of　Juggling。　Practical　Uses　the　Best　Test。
  Concaved　and　Convex　Planes。　How　Momentum　is　a
  Factor　in　Inverted　Flying。　The　Turning　Movement。
  When　Concaved　Planes　are　Desirable。　The　Speed
  Mania。　Uses　of　Flying　Machines。　Perfection　in　Machines
  Must　Come　Before　Speed。　The　Range　of　its
  Uses。　Commercial　Utility。
  CHAPTER　VIII。　KITES　AND　GLIDERS
  The　Dragon　Kite。　Its　Construction。　The　Malay
  Kite。　Dihedral　Angle。　The　Common　Kite。　The　Bow
  Kite。　The　Box　Kite。　The　Voison　Bi…plane。　Lateral
  Stability　in　Kites；　not　Conclusive　as　to　Planes。　The
  Spear　Kite。　The　Cellular　Kite。　Tetrahedral　Kite。
  The　Deltoid。　The　Dunne　Flying　Machine。　Rotating
  Kite。　Kite　Principles。　Lateral　Stability　in　Kites。
  Similarity　of　Fore　and　Aft　Control。　Gliding　Flight
  One　of　the　Uses　of　Glider　Experiments。　Hints　in
  Gliding。
  CHAPTER　IX。　AEROPLANE　CONSTRUCTION
  Lateral　and　Fore　and　Aft。　Transverse。　Stability
  and　Stabilization。　The　Wright　System。　Controlling
  the　Warping　Ends。　The　Curtiss　Wings。　The　Farman
  Ailerons。　Features　Well　Developed。　Depressing　the
  Rear　End。　Determining　the　Size。　Rule　for　Placing
  the　Planes。　Elevating　Plane。　Action　in　Alighting。
  The　Monoplane。　The　Common　Fly。　Stream　Lines。
  The　Monoplane　Form。
  CHAPTER　X。　POWER　AND　ITS　APPLICATION
  Features　in　Power　Application。　Amount　of　Power
  Necessary。　The　Pull　of　the　Propeller。　Foot　Pounds
  Small　Amount　of　Power　Available。　High　Propeller
  Speed　Important。　Width　and　Pitch　of　Blades。　Effect
  of　Increasing　Propeller　Pull。　Disposition　of　the
  Planes。　Different　Speeds　with　Same　Power。　Increase
  of　Speed　Adds　to　Resistance。　How　Power　Decreases
  with　Speed。　How　to　Calculate　the　Power　Applied。
  Pulling　Against　an　Angle。　The　Horizontal　and　the
  Vertical　Pull。　The　Power　Mounting。　Securing　the
  Propeller　to　the　Shaft。　Vibrations。　Weaknesses　in
  Mounting。　The　Gasoline　Tank。　Where　to　Locate　the
  Tank。　The　Danger　to　the　Pilot。　The　Closed…in　Body。
  Starting　the　Machine。　Propellers　with　Varying　Pitch。
  CHAPTER　XI。　FLYING　MACHINE　ACCESSORIES
  The　Anemometer。　The　Anemograph。　The　Anemometrograph。
  The　Speed　Indicator。　Air　Pressure　Indicator。
  Determining　the　Pressure　From　the　Speed。
  Calculating　Pressure　From　Speed。　How　the　Figures
  are　Determined。　Converting　Hours　Into　Minutes。
  Changing　Speed　Hours　to　Seconds。　Pressure　as　the
  Square　of　the　Speed。　Gyroscopic：Balance。　The　Principles
  Involved。　The　Application　of　the　Gyroscope。
  Fore　and　Aft　Gyroscopic　Control。　Angle　Indicator。
  Pendulum　Stabilizer。　Steering　and　Controlling
  Wheel。　Automatic　Stabilizing　Wings。　Barometers。
  Aneroid　Barometer。　Hydroplanes。　Sustaining　Weight
  of　Pontoons。　Shape　of　the　Pontoon。
  CHAPTER　XII。　EXPERIMENTAL　WORK　IN　FLYING
  Certain　Conditions　in　Flying。　Heat　in　Air。　Motion
  When　in　Flight。　Changing　Atmosphere。　〃Ascending
  Currents。〃　〃Aspirate　Currents。〃　Outstretched　Wings。
  The　Starting　Point。　The　Vital　Part　of　the　Machine。
  Studying　the　Action　of　the　Machine。　Elevating　the
  Machine。　How　to　Practice。　The　First　Stage。　Patience
  the　Most　Difficult　Thing。　The　Second　Stage。
  The　Third　Stage。　Observations　While　in　Flight。　Flying
  in　a　Wind。　First　Trials　in　a　Quiet　Atmosphere。
  Making　Turns。　The　Fourth　Stage。　The　Figure　8。
  The　Vol　Plane。　The　Landing。　Flying　Altitudes。
  CHAPTER　XIII。　THE　PROPELLER
  Propeller　Changes。　Propeller　Shape。　The　Diameter。
  Pitch。　Laying　Out　the　Pitch。　Pitch　Rule。　Laminated
  Construction。　Laying　up　a　Propeller　Form。
  Making　Wide　Blades。　Propeller　Outline。　For　High
  Speeds。　Increasing　Propeller　Efficiency。
  CHAPTER　XIV。　EXPERIMENTAL　GLIDERS　AND　MODEL　AEROPLANES
  The　Relation　of　Models　to　Flying　Machines。　Lessons
  From　Models。　Flying　Model　Aeroplanes。　An
  Efficient　Glider。　The　Deltoid　Formation。　Racing
  Models。　The　Power　for　Model　Aeroplanes。　Making
  the　Propeller。　Material　for　the　Propeller。　Rubber。
  Propeller　Shape　and　Size。　Supporting　Surfaces。
  CHAPTER　XV。　THE　AEROPLANE　IN　THE　GREAT　WAR
  Balloon　Observations。　Changed　Conditions　in　Warfare。
  The　Effort　to　Conceal　Combatants。　Smokeless
  Powder。　Inventions　to　Attack　Aerial　Craft。　Functions
  of　the　Aeroplane　in　War。　Bomb…throwing　Tests。
  Method　for　Determining　the　Movement　of　a　Bomb。
  The　Great　Extent