ge　merely　through　lack　of　skill　on　the　part　of　the　negroes；　he　assumed　active　operations　as　a　conductor　on　the　Underground　Railroad。　Coffin　used　the　Underground　Railroad　as　a　means　of　making　converts　to　the　cause。　One　who　berated　him　for　negro…stealing　was　adroitly　induced　to　meet　a　newly　arrived　passenger　and　listen　to　his　pathetic　story。　At　the　psychological　moment　the　objector　was　skillfully　led　to　hand　the　fugitive　a　dollar　to　assist　him　in　reaching　a　place　of　safety。　Coffin　then　explained　to　this　benevolent　non…abolitionist　the　nature　of　his　act；　assuring　him　that　he　was　liable　to　heavy　damages　therefor。　The　reply　was　in　this　case　more　forcible　than　elegant：　〃Damn　it！　You've　got　me！〃　This　conversion　he　publicly　proclaimed　for　the　sake　of　its　influence　upon　others。　Many　were　the　instances　in　which　those　of　supposed　pro…slavery　convictions　were　brought　face　to　face　with　an　actual　case　of　the　threatened　reenslavement　of　a　human　being　escaping　from　bondage　and　were；　to　their　own　surprise；　overcome　by　the　natural；　humane　sentiment　which　asserted　itself。　For　example；　a　Cincinnati　merchant；　who　at　the　time　was　supposed　to　be　assisting　one　of　his　Southern　customers　to　recover　an　escaped　fugitive；　was　confronted　at　his　own　home　by　the　poor　half…starved　victim。　Yielding　to　the　impulse　of　compassion；　he　gave　the　slave　food　and　personal　assistance　and　directed　the　destitute　creature　to　a　place　of　refuge。　The　division　in　the　Quaker　meeting　in　Indiana　with　which　Levi　Coffin　was　intimately　associated　may　serve　to　exemplify　a　corresponding　attitude　in　other　churches　on　the　question　of　slavery。　The　Quakers　availed　themselves　of　the　first　great　anti…　slavery　movement　to　rid　themselves　completely　of　the　burden。　Their　Society　itself　became　an　anti…slavery　organization。　Yet　even　so　the　Friends　had　differences　of　opinion　as　to　fit　methods　of　action。　Not　only　did　many　of　them　disapprove　of　rendering　aid　to　fugitives　but　they　also　objected　to　the　use　of　the　meetinghouses　for　anti…slavery　lectures。　The　formation　of　the　Liberty　party　served　to　accentuate　the　division。　The　great　body　of　the　Friends　were　anti…slavery　Whigs。　A　crisis　in　the　affairs　of　the　Society　of　Friends　in　the　State　of　Indiana　was　reached　in　1843　when　the　radicals　seceded　and　organized　an　independent　〃Anti…Slavery　Friends　Society。〃　Immediately　there　appeared　in　numerous　localities　duplicate　Friends'　meeting…houses。　In　and　around　one　of　these；　distinguished　as　〃Liberty　Hall；〃　were　gathered　those　whose　supreme　religious　interest　was　directed　against　the　sin　of　slavery。　Never　was　there　a　church　division　which　involved　less　bad　blood　or　sense　of　injury　or　injustice。　Members　of　the　same　family　attended　separate　churches　without　the　least　difference　in　their　cordial　relations。　No　important　principle　was　involved；　there　were　apparently　good　reasons　for　both　lines　of　policy；　and　each　party　understood　and　respected　the　other's　position。　After　the　adoption　of　the　Fugitive　Slave　Law　of　1850　and　the　passing　of　the　Whig　party；　these　differences　disappeared；　the　separate　organization　was　disbanded；　and　all　Friends'　meetinghouses　became　〃liberty　halls。〃　The　disposition　to　aid　the　fugitive　was　by　no　means　confined　to　the　North　nor　to　Quakers　in　the　South。　Richard　Dillingham；　a　young　Quaker　who　had　yielded　to　the　solicitations　of　escaped　fugitives　in　Cincinnati　and　had　undertaken　a　mission　to　Nashville；　Tennessee；　to　rescue　their　relatives　from　a　〃hard　master；〃　was　arrested　with　three　stolen　slaves　on　his　hands。　He　made　confession　in　open　court　and　frankly　explained　his　motives。　The　Nashville　Daily　Gazette　of　April　13；　1849；　has　words　of　commendation　for　the　prisoner　and　his　family　and　states　that　〃he　was　not　without　the　sympathy　of　those　who　attended　the　trial。〃　Though　Dillingham　committed　a　crime　to　which　the　death　penalty　was　attached　in　some　of　the　States；　the　jury　affixed　the　minimum　penalty　of　three　years'　imprisonment　for　the　offense。　As　Nashville　was　far　removed　from　Quaker　influence　or　any　sort　of　anti…slavery　propaganda；　Dillingham　was　himself　astonished　and　was　profoundly　grateful　for　the　leniency　shown　him　by　Court；　jury；　and　prosecutors。　This　incident　occurred　in　the　year　before　the　adoption　of　the　Fugitive　Slave　Law　of　1850。　It　is　well　known　that　in　all　times　and　places　which　were　free　from　partizan　bitterness　there　was　a　general　natural　sympathy　for　those　who　imperiled　their　life　and　liberty　to　free　the　slave。　Throughout　the　South　men　of　both　races　were　ready　to　give　aid　to　slaves　seeking　to　escape　from　dangers　or　burdens　which　they　regarded　as　intolerable。　While　such　a　man　as　Frederick　Douglass；　when　still　a　slave；　was　an　agent　of　the　Underground　Railroad；　Southern　anti…　slavery　people　themselves　were　to　a　large　extent　the　original　projectors　of　the　movement。　Even　members　of　the　families　of　slaveholders　have　been　known　to　assist　fugitives　in　their　escape　to　the　North。　The　fugitives　traveled　in　various　ways　which　were　determined　partly　by　geographical　conditions　and　partly　by　the　character　of　the　inhabitants　of　a　region。　On　the　Atlantic　coast；　from　Florida　to　Delaware；　slaves　were　concealed　in　ships　and　were　thus　conveyed　to　free　States。　Thence　some　made　their　way　towards　Canada　by　steamboat　or　railroad；　though　most　made　the　journey　on　foot　or；　less　frequently；　in　private　conveyances。　Stalwart　slaves　sometimes　walked　from　the　Gulf　States　to　the　free　States；　traveling　chiefly　by　night　and　guided　by　the　North　Star。　Having　reached　a　free　State；　they　found　friends　among　those　of　their　own　race；　or　were　taken　in　hand　by　officers　of　the　Underground　Railroad　and　were　thus　helped　across　the　Canadian　border。　》From　the　seacoast　the　valley　of　the　Connecticut　River　furnished　a　convenient　route　for　completing　the　journey　northward；　though　the　way　of　the　fugitives　was　often　deflected　to　the　Lake　Champlain　region。　In　later　years；　when　New　England　became　generally　sympathetic；　numerous　lines　of　escape　traversed　that　entire　section。　Other　courses　extended　northward　from　the　vicinity　of　Philadelphia；　Delaware；　and　Maryland。　Here；　through　the　center　of　American　Quakerdom；　all　conditions　favored　the　escape　of　fugitives；　for　slavery　and　freedom　were　at　close　quarters。　The　activities　of　the　Quakers；　who　were　at　first　engaged　merely　in　preventing　the　reenslavement　of　those　who　had　a　legal　right　to　freedom；　naturally　expanded　until　aid　was　given　without　reservation　to　any　fugitive。　From　Philadelphia　as　a　distributing　point　the　route　went　by　way　of　New　York　and　the　Hudson　River　or　up　the　river　valleys　of　eastern　Pennsylvania　through　western　New　York。　In　addition　to　the　routes　to　freedom　which　the　seacoast　and　river　valleys　afforded；　the　Appalachian　chain　of　mountains　formed　an　attractive　highway　of　escape　from　slavery；　though　these　mountain　paths　lead　us　to　another　branch　of　our　subject　not　immediately　connected　with　the　Underground　Railroadthe　escape　from　bondage　by　the　initiative　of　the　slaves　themselves　or　by　the　aid　of　their　own　people。　Mountains　have　always　been　a　refuge　and　a　defense　for　the　outlaw；　and　the　few　dwellers　in　this　almost　unknown　wilderness　were　not　infrequently　either　indifferent　or　friendly　to　the　fugitives。　The　escaped　slaves　might；　if　they　chose；　adopt　for　an　indefinite　time　the　free　life　of　the　hills；　but　in　most　cases　they　naturally　drifted　northward　for　greater　security　until　they　found　themselves　in　a　free　State。　Through　the　mountainous　regions　of　Virginia　many　thus　escaped；　and　they　were　induced　to　remain　there　by　the　example　and　advice　of　residents　of　their　own　color。　The　negroes　themselves　excelled　all　others　in　furnishing　places　of　refuge　to　fugitives　from　slavery　and　in　concealing　their　status。　For　this　reason　John　Brown　and　his　associates　were　influenced　to　select　this　region　for　their　great　venture　in　1859。　But　there　were　other　than　geographical　conditions　which　helped　to　determine　the　direction　of　the　lines　of　the　Underground　Railroad。　West　of　the　Alleghanies　are　the　broad　plains　of　the　Mississippi　Valley；　and　in　this　great　region　human　elements　rather　than　physical　characteristics　proved　influential。　Northern　Ohio　was　occupied　by　settlers　from　the　East；　many　of　whom　were　anti…　slavery。　Southern　Ohio　was　populated　largely　by　Quakers　and　other　people　from　the　slave　States　who　abhorred　slavery。　On　the　east　and　south　the　State　bordered　on　slave　territory；　and　every　part　of　the　region　was　traversed　by　lines　of　travel　for　the　slave。　In　eastern　and　northern　Indiana　a　favorable　attitude　prevailed。　Southwestern　Indiana；　however；　and　southern　Illinois　were　occupied　by　those　less　friendly　to　the　slave；　so　that　in　these　sections　there　is　little　evidence　of　systematic　aid　to　fugitives。　But　with　St。　Louis；　Missouri；　as　a　starting…point；　northern　Illinois　became　honeycombed　with　refuges　for　patrons　of　the　Underground　Railroad。　The　negro　also　found　friends　in　all　the　settled　portions　of　Iowa；　and　at　the　outbreak　of　the　Civil　War　a　lively　traffic　was　being　developed；　extending　from　Lawrence；　Kansas；　to　Keokuk；　Iowa。　There　is　respectable　authority　for　a　variety　of　opinions　as　to　the　requirements　of　the　rendition　clause　in　the　Constitution　and　of　the　Act　of　Congress　of　1793　to　facilitate　the　return　of　fugitives　from　service　or　labor；　but　there　is　no　respectable　authority　in　support　of　the　view　that　ne