Modern　Customs　and　Ancient　Laws　of　Russia
  by　Maxime　Kovalevsky
  1891
  Lecture　I
  The　Matrimonial　Customs　and　Usages　of　the　Russian　People；　and　the
  Light　They　Throw　on　the　Evolution　of　Marriage
  The　wide　historical　studies　pursued　by　members　of　the
  University　of　Oxford　necessarily　include　the　study　of　the
  Slavonic　race。　The　part　which　this　race　is　beginning　to　play　in
  the　economic　and　social　progress　of　our　time；　and　the
  considerable　achievements　which　it　has　already　made　in　the　fields
  of　literature　and　science　have　attracted　the　attention　even　of
  those　nations　whose　political　interests　are　supposed　not　to
  coincide　precisely　with　those　of　the　Slavs。　The　Ilchester
  Lectures　were；　I　believe；　founded　in　order　to　make　known　to
  Oxford　students　the　present　and　past　of　this　undoubtedly　Aryan
  branch　of　the　human　race。　A　good　deal　of　work　has　already　been
  done　by　my　predecessors。　Professor　Thomson；　of　Copenhagen；　by　his
  careful　study　of　the　Norman　origin　of　the　Russian　State；　has
  greatly　contributed　to　unveil　even　to　Russians　the　mystery　of
  their　far…distant　past；　while　Professor　Turner；　in　the　course　of
  his　brilliant　lectures　last　year；　made　you　acquainted　with　our
  best　modern　novelists。　I　do　not　know　if　my　friend；　the　late　Mr
  W。R。S。　Ralston；　ever　lectured　in　the　Taylor　institute；　but　the
  accurate　and　lively　accounts　he　has　given　of　Russian　epic　poems
  and　popular　tales　were　undoubtedly　written　under　the　influence　of
  the　same　feelings　as　those　which　inspired　the　founder　of　these
  lectures。
  In　England　the　works　of　Ralston　were　the　first　to　deal　with
  the　vast　field　of　Slavonic；　and　more　especially　of　Russian；
  folk…lore。　His　chief　endeavour　was　to　show　the　great　amount　of
  information　which　the　unwritten　literature　of　Russia　contains　as
  to　the　early　stages　of　religious　development。　But　Russian
  folk…lore　may　interest　a　lawyer　as　well　as　a　mythologist；　its
  study　may　enrich　comparative　jurisprudence　with　new　material　not
  less　than　comparative　mythology。　It　can　no　doubt　unveil　more　than
  one　mystery　concerning　the　early　state　of　European　family　law；
  and　the　various　modes　in　which　land　was　held　by　our　remotest
  ancestors。　The　first　stages　in　the　history　of　political
  institutions；　and　more　particularly　the　part　which　the　common
  people　were　called　upon　in　old　days　to　play　in　the　management　of
  public　affairs；　can　be　illustrated　by　the　history　of　Russian
  folk…motes　and　Russian　national　councils；　much　better　than　by
  reference　to　the　short　notices　left　by　Caesar　or　Tacitus　of　the
  popular　assemblies　of　the　Germans。　Russian　serfdom；　and　the
  history　of　its　abolition；　may　also　be　instructive　in　more　than
  one　point；　even　to　those　whose　chief　purpose　is　to　study　the
  origin；　the　growth；　and　the　abolition　of　personal　servitude　in
  England；　France；　or　Germany。
  When　I　look　to　the　great　importance　of　the　modern　customs　and
  ancient　laws　of　Russia　as　regards　the　comparative　history　of
  institutions；　I　confidently　hope　to　meet　on　your　part　with　the
  indulgence　which　the　lecturer　needs　who　addresses　his　audience　in
  a　foreign　tongue。　I　think　that　the　study　of　Russian　legal
  antiquities　may　to　a　certain　extent　be　considered　as　a　necessary
  appendage　of　those　exhaustive　inquiries　in　Indian　and　old　Celtic
  institutions　for　which　we　are　indebted　to　one　of　your　most
  celebrated　writers；　the　late　Sir　Henry　Maine。　I　feel　the　more
  pleasure　in　mentioning　his　name；　as　it　was　by　him　that　my　first
  works　in　the　field　of　comparative　jurisprudence　were　inspired。
  His　lectures　have　found　readers　in　the　remotest　parts　of　the
  world；　and　have　suggested　to　more　than　one　foreign　scholar　the
  idea　of　re…writing　the　legal　history　of　his　own　country。
  Although　recognising　in　him　the　chief　representative　of　the
  legal　school　to　which　I　belong；　I　shall　more　than　once　put
  forward　theories　which　are　altogether　opposed　to　his：　such　an
  occasion　presents　itself　at　once　in　the　study　of　early　Russian
  family　law。
  This　study　will；　I　have　no　doubt；　throw　a　clear　light　on　the
  earliest　period　in　the　evolution　of　marriage　　that　of　the
  matriarchate。　I　insist　the　more　on　this　point　because　in　England
  an　opinion　has　been　expressed　that　the　customary　law　of　Russia
  might　be　expected　to　give　another　illustration　of　the　general
  prevalence　of　the　patriarchal　family　even　in　the　first　stages　of
  social　development。　Sir　Henry　Maine　has　more　than　once（1*）
  expressed　this　opinion；　and　has　found　confirmation　for　it　in
  certain　quotations　made　chiefly　from　the　well…known　works　of
  Haxthausen　and　Mackenzie　Wallace。　Both　these　authors；　making　a
  large　use　of　the　rich　ethnographical　literature　of　Russia；　have
  correctly　described　the　prevailing　system　of　Russian　joint
  families；　or　house　communities；　and　their　account　may　be　taken
  generally　as　a　good　illustration　of　the　old　patriarchal　family　of
  the　Germans　and　Celts。　But　neither　of　them　had　any　opportunity　of
  studying　in　detail　the　numerous　survivals　which　we　still　find　of
  a　state　of　things　which　had　nothing　in　common　with　agnatism；　or
  even　with　a　firmly　established　〃patria　potestas。〃　Such　was　not；
  after　all；　the　purpose　that　they　had　in　view。　Theirs　was　the
  study　of　contemporary　life　in　Russian　society；　and　the　question
  of　the　primitive　state　of　family　relations　in　Russia　cannot　be
  settled　by　reference　to　works　which　do　not　deal　with　the　subject。
  Sir　Henry　Maine　was　also　misled　in　his　survey　of　Slavonic
  family　law　by　the　well…known　Bohemian　or　Czech　poem；　〃The　Trial
  of　the　Princess　Liuhouscha。〃　This　poem　he　quotes　at　great　length；
  and　he　states　that　it　leaves　no　doubt　as　to　the　existence　of　a
  sort　of　undivided　family　or　house…community　in　the　most　remote
  period　of　Bohemian　history。　Unfortunately；　the　poem　on　which　he
  builds　his　conclusion　is　now　unanimously　declared　both　by
  Slavonic　and　German　scholars　to　be　a　forgery　by　the　well…known
  Bohemian　philologist；　Hanka。　It　is　clear；　therefore；　that　the
  whole　of　his　theory；　so　far　as　it　deals　with　Slavonic　law　and
  usage；　is　based　either　on　facts　which　concern　modern　times　alone；
  and　have　nothing　to　do　with　ancient　times；　or　on　documents
  manifestly　false。
  Now　let　us　see　what　evidence　we　possess　as　to　the　character
  of　early　Slavonic　family　law。　We　shall　first　give　our
  authorities；　and　then　proceed　to　draw　our　general　conclusions。
  The　earliest　evidence　which　we　possess　as　to　the　social
  relations　of　the　Eastern　Slavs；　whose　confederacy　was　the
  beginning　of　the　Russian　State；　is　contained　in　the　so…called
  Chronicle　of　Nestor。　Nestor　is　supposed　to　have　been　a　Russian
  monk　of　the　eleventh　century。
  Contrasting　the　mode　of　life　of　the　most　civilised　Slavonic
  nation；　the　Polians；　who　were　established　on　the　banks　of　the
  Dnieper；　with　that　of　the　more　barbarous　tribes　of　Russia；
  Nestor；　or　perhaps　it　is　better　to　say；　the　unknown　author　of　the
  Chronicle　which　bears　this　name；　states　as　follows　（I　translate
  literally）：　〃Each　tribe　had　its　own　customs；　and　the　laws　of　its
  forefathers　and　its　own　traditions；　each　its　own　manner　of　life
  （nrav）。　The　Polians　had　the　customs　of　their　fathers；　customs
  mild　and　peaceful　（tichi）；　they　showed　a　kind　of　reserve
  （stidenie）　towards　the　daughters　of　their　sons　and　towards　their
  sisters；　towards　their　mothers　and　their　parents；　towards　the
  mothers　of　their　wives；　and　towards　the　brothers　of　their
  husbands；　to　all　of　the　persons　named　they　showed　great　reserve。
  Amongst　them　the　bridegroom　did　not　go　to　seek　his　bride；　she　was
  taken　to　him　in　the　evening；　and　the　following　morning　they
  brought　what　was　given　for　her。〃
  〃Another　Slavonic　tribe；　the　Drevlians；　according　to　the　same
  chronicler；　lived　like　beasts；　they　killed　one　another；　they　fed
  on　things　unclean；　no　marriage　took　place　amongst　them；　but　they
  captured　young　girls　on　the　banks　of　rivers。〃
  The　same　author　narrates　that　three　other　Slavonic　tribes；
  the　Radimich；　the　Viatich；　and　the　Sever；　had　the　same　customs；
  they　lived　〃in　forests；　like　other　wild　animals；　they　ate
  everything　unclean；　and　shameful　things　occurred　amongst　them
  between　fathers　and　daughters…in…law。　Marriages　were　unknown　to
  them；　but　games　were　held　in　the　outskirts　of　villages；　they　met
  at　these　games　for　dancing　and　every　kind　of　diabolic　amusement；
  and　there　they　captured　their　wives；　each　man　the　one　he　had
  covenanted　with。　They　had　generally　two　or　three　wives。〃
  I　have　tried　to　give　you　the　nearest　possible　translation　of
  this　old　Russian　text；　the　interpretation　of　which；　however；
  gives　rise　to　certain　difficulties　not　yet　quite　settled。　I　will
  now　classify；　to　the　best　of　my　power；　the　various　facts　which　we
  can　infer　from　this　text。　First　of　all；　it　establishes　the　fact
  that　marriage　in　the　sense　of　a　constant　union　between　husband
  and　wife；　was　not　a　general　institution　among　the　Eastern　Slavs。
  With　the　exception　of　the　more　civilised　Polians；　no　other　tribe
  is　stated　to　have　any　notion　of　it。　Of　course　this　does　not　mean
  that　all　alike　were　entirely　ignorant　of　the　meaning　of　family
  life。　It　only　weans　that　their　mode　of　constituting　a　family　did
  not　correspond　to　the　idea　which　the　author；　who；　as　we　have
  said；　was　a　monk；　entertained　as　to　matrimonial　relations。　The
  Radimich；　Viatich；