ough　this　reaction　occurs　in　some　degree　to　all；　others　are　so　constituted　that　all　criticism　or　blame　is　extremely　painful　and　needs　to　be　tempered　with　praise　and　encouragement。　Where　blame　is　felt　to　be　deserved；　and　where　the　character　is　one　of　striving　after　betterment；　where　the　ego　is　neither　irritable　nor　tender；　blame　is　an　aid　to　growth　and　efficiency。　Many　a　man　flares　up　under　blame　who　〃cools〃　down　when　he　sees　the　justice　of　the　criticism；　and　changes　accordingly。　＇1＇　A　very　striking　example　of　this　was　noticeable　during　the　Great　War。　American　business　men　in　general；　producers；　distributors；　wholesalers；　retailers　and　speculators　all　got　〃rich；〃some　in　extraordinary　measure。　Did　many　of　them　attribute　this　to　the　fact　that　there　was　a　〃sellers'　market〃　caused　by　the　conditions　over　which　the　individual　business　man　had　no　control？　On　the　contrary；　the　overwhelming　majority　quite　complacently　attributed　the　success　（which　later　proved　ephemeral）　to　their　own　ability。
  Therefore；　in　estimating　the　character　of　any　individual；　one　must　ask　into　the　nature　of　his　environment；　the　traits　and　teachings　of　the　group　from　which　he　comes　and　among　whom　he　has　lived。　To　understand　any　one　this　inquiry　must　be　detailed　and　reach　back　into　his　early　life。　Yet　not　too　much　stress　must　be　laid　upon　certain　influences　in　regard　to　certain　qualities。　For　example；　the　average　child　is　not　influenced　greatly　by　immorality　until　near　puberty；　but　dishonesty　and　bad　manners　strike　at　him　from　early　childhood。　The　large　group；　the　small　group；　family　life；　gang　life　influence　character；　but　not　necessarily　in　a　direct　way。　They　may　act　to　develop　counter…　prejudices；　for　there　is　no　one　so　bitter　against　alcoholism　as　the　man　whose　father　was　a　drunkard　and　who　himself　revolts　against　it。　And　there　is　no　one　so　radical　as　he　whose　youth　was　cramped　by　too　much　conservatism。　One　might　easily　classify　people　according　to　their　reaction　to　reward；　praise；　punishment　and　blame。　This　would　lead　us　too　far　afield。　But　at　least　it　is　safe　to　say　that　in　using　these　factors　in　directing　conduct　and　character　the　individual　must　be　studied　in　a　detailed　way。　The　average　child；　the　average　man　and　woman　is　found　only　in　statistics。　Everywhere；　to　deal　successfully；　one　must　deal　with　the　individual。　There　is　a　praise…reacting　type　to　whom　praise　acts　as　a　tonic　of　incomparable　worth；　especially　when　he　who　administers　the　praise　is　respected。　And　there　are　employers；　teachers　and　parents　who　ignore　this　fact　entirely；　who　use　praise　too　little　or　not　at　all　and　who　rely　on　adverse　criticism。　The　hunger　for　appreciation　is　a　deep；　intense　need；　and　many　of　the　problems　of　life　would　melt　before　the　proper　use　of　praise。　〃Fine　words　butter　no　parsnips〃　means　that　reward　of　other　kinds　is　needed　to　give　substance　to　praise。　Praise　only　without　reward　losses　its　value。　〃I　get　lots　of　'Thank　you's'　and　'You　are　a　good　fellow'；〃　complained　a　porter　to　me　once；　〃but　I　cannot　bring　up　my　family　on　them。〃　In　their　hearts；　no　matter　what　they　say；　the　majority　of　people　place　highly　him　who　is　just　in　compensation　and　reward　and　they　want　substantial　goods。　Many　a　young　scientist　of　my　acquaintance　has　found　that　election　to　learned　societies　and　praise　and　respect　palled　on　him　as　compared　to　a　living　salary。　Money　can　be　exchanged　for　vacations；　education；　books；　good　times　and　the　opportunity　of　helping　others；　but　praise　has　no　cash　exchange　value。　Blame　and　punishment　are　intensely　individual　matters。　Where　they　are　used　to　correct　and　to　better　the　character；　where　they　are　the　tools　of　the　friends　and　teacher　and　not　the　weapons　of　the　enemy；　great　care　must　be　used。　Character　building　is　an　aim；　not　a　technique；　and　the　end　has　justified　the　means。　Society　has　just　about　come　to　the　conclusion　that　merely　punishing　the　criminal　does　not　reform　him；　and　merely　to　punish　the　child　has　but　part　of　the　effect　desired。　In　character　training　punishment　and　blame　must　bring　PAIN；　but　that　pain　must　be　felt　to　be　deserved　（at　least　in　the　older　child　and　adult）　and　not　arouse　lasting　anger　or　humiliation。　It　must　teach　the　error　of　the　ways　and　prepare　the　recipient　for　instruction　as　to　the　right　away。　Often　enough　the　pain　of　punishment　and　blame　widens　the　breach　between　the　teacher　and　pupil　merely　because　the　former　has　inflicted　pain　without　recompense。　One　might　put　it　thus：　The　pleasure　of　praise　and　reward　must　energize；　the　pain　of　blame　and　punishment。　must　teach；　else　teacher　and　society　have　misused　these　social　tools。　〃Very　well；〃　I　hear　some　readers　say；　〃is　conscience　to　be　dismissed　so　shortly？　Have　not　men　dared　to　do　right　in　the　face　of　a　world　that　blamed　and　punished；　have　they　not　stood　without　praise　or　reward　or　the　fellowship　of　others　for　the　actions　their　conscience　dictated？〃　Yes；　indeed。　What；　then；　is　conscience？　For　the　common　thought　of　the　world　it　is　an　inward　mentor　placed　by　God　within　the　bosom　of　man　to　guide　him；　to　goad　him；　even；　into　choosing　right　and　avoiding　wrong。　Where　the　conception　of　conscience　is　not　quite　so　literal　and　direct　it　is　held　to　be　an　immanent　something　of　innate　origin。　Whatever　it　may　be；　it　surely　does　not　guide　us　very　accurately　or　well；　for　there　are　opposing　consciences　on　every　side　of　every　question；　and　opponents　find　themselves　equally　spurred　by　conscience　to　action　and　are　equally　convinced　of　righteousness。　In　the　long　run　it　would　be　difficult　to　decide　which　did　more　harm　in　the　world；　a　conscientious　persecutor　or　bigot；　an　Alvarez　or　James　the　First；　or　a　dissolute；　conscienceless　sensualist　like　Charles　the　Second。　Certainly　consciences　differ　as　widely　as　digestions。　Conscience；　so　it　seems　to　me；　arises　in　early　childhood　with　the　appearance　of　fixed　purposes。　It　is　entirely　guided　at　first　by　teaching　and　by　praise　and　blame；　for　the　infant　gives　no　evidence　of　conscience。　But　the　infant　（or　young　child）　soon　wants　to　please；　wants　the　favor　and　smiles　of　its　parents。　Why　does　it　wish　to　please？　Is　there　a　something　irreducible　in　the　desire？　I　do　not　know　and　cannot　pretend　to　answer。　This；　however；　may　be　definitely　stated。　Conscience　arises　or　grows　in　the　struggle　between　opposing　desires　and　purposes　in　the　course　of　which　one　purpose　becomes　recognized　as　the　proper　guide　to　conduct。　Let　us　take　a　simple　case　from　the　moral　struggles　of　the　child。　A　three…year…old；　wandering　into　the　kitchen；　with　mother　in　the　back　yard　hanging　out　the　clothes；　makes　the　startling　discovery　that　there　is　a　pan　of　tarts；　apple　tarts；　on　the　kitchen　table；　easily　within　reach；　especially　if　Master　Three…Year…Old　pulls　up　a　chair。　Tarts！　The　child　becomes　excited；　his　mouth　waters；　and　those　tarts　become　the　symbol　and　substance　of　pleasure；and　within　his　reach。　But　in　the　back　of　his　mind；　urging　him　to　stop　and　consider；　is　the　memory　of　mother's　injunction；　〃You　must　always　ask　for　tarts　or　candy　or　any　goodies　before　you　take　them。〃　And　there　is　the　pain　of　punishment　and　scolding　and　the　vision　of　father；　looking　stern　and　not　playing　with　one。　These　are　distant；　faint　memories；　weak　forces；but　they　influence　conduct　so　that　the　little　one　takes　a　tart　and　eats　it　hurriedly　before　mother　returns　and　then　runs　into　the　dining　room　or　bedroom。　Thus；　instead　of　merely　obeying　an　impulse　to　take　the　tart；　as　an　uninstructed　child　would；　he　has　now　become　a　little　thief　and　has　had　his　first　real　moral　struggle。　But　it　is　a　grim　law　that　sensual　pleasures　do　not　last　beyond　the　period　of　gratification。　If　this　were　not　so　there　could　be　no　morality　in　the　world；　and　conscience　would　never　reach　any　importance。　Whether　we　gratify　sex　appetite　or　gastric　hunger；　the　pleasure　goes　at　once。　True；　there　may　be　a　short　afterglow　of　good　feeling；　but　rarely　is　it　strongly　affective；　and　very　often　it　is　replaced　by　a　positive　repulsion　for　the　appetite。　On　the　other　hand；　to　be　out　of　conformity　with　your　group　is　a　permanent　pain；　and　the　fear　of　being　found　out　is　an　anxiety　often　too　great　to　be　endured。　And　so　our　child；　with　the　tart　gone；　wishes　he　had　not　taken　it；　perhaps　not　clearly　or　verbally；　he　is　regretful；　let　us　say。　Out　of　this　regret；　out　of　this　fear　of　being　found　out；　out　of　the　pain　of　nonconformity；　arises　the　conscience　feeling　which　says；　〃Thou　shalt　not〃　or　〃Thou　shalt；〃　according　to　social　teaching。　It　may　be　objected　that　〃Conscience　often　arrays　itself　against　society；　against　social　teaching；　against　perhaps　all　men。〃　It　is　not　my　place　to　trace　the　growth　in　mind　of　the　idea　of　the　Absolute　Good；　or　absolute　right　and　wrong；　with　which　a　man　must　align　himself。　I　believe　it　is　the　strength　of　the　ego　feeling　which　gives　to　some　the　vigor　and　unyieldingness　of　their　conscience。　〃I　am　right；〃　says　such　a　person；　〃and　the　rest　of　the　world　is　wrong。　God　is　with　me；　my　conscience　and　future　times　will　agree；〃　thus　appealing　to　the　distant　tribunal　as　James　pointed　out。　All　the　insane　hospitals　have　their　sufferers　for　conscience's　sake；　paranoid　personalities　whose　egos　have　expanded　to　infallibility　and　whose　consciences　are　correspondingly　developed。　Conscience　thus　represents　the　power　of　the　permanent　purposes　and　ideals　of　the　individuals；　and　it　wars　on　the　less