and　you　will　feel　the　wisdom　of　Mark　Twain’s　little　sermon；　“Fear　knocked　at　the　door。
  Faith　answered。　No　one　was　there。”
  ADJECTIVES
  Adjectives　are　words　that　describe　nouns。　In　the　phrase　“the　green　pen；”　green　is　the
  adjective　that　describes　pen。　You’ll　encounter　some　fuss　about　them　because　in　many
  languages　adjectives　have　to　AGREE　WITH　（appear　in　the　same　form　as）　the　nouns　they
  MODIFY　（refer　to）。　In　those　languages　adjectives　must　agree　with　the　nouns　in　gender　and
  number　（and　sometimes　case）。
  A　little　Spanish　will　quickly　make　it　clear。　El　libro　es　rojo　（“The　book　is　red”）
  shows　the　adjective　rojo　（“red”）　in　masculine　singular　form　to　agree　with　libro　（“book”）。
  La　pluma　es　roja　（“The　pen　is　red”）　shows　the　adjective　roja　（“red”）　in　feminine　singular
  form　to　agree　with　pluma　（“pen”）。　Los　libros　son　rojos　（“The　books　are　red”）　shows　the
  adjective　rojos　（“red”）　in　masculine　plural　form　to　agree　with　libros　（“books”）。　Finally；
  Las　plumas　son　rojas　（“The　pens　are　red”）　shows　the　adjective　rojas　（“red”）　in　feminine
  plural　form　to　agree　with　plumas　（“pens”）。
  ADVERBS
  Adverbs　describe　verbs　–　they　tell　how。　“He　mastered　the　easy　parts　of　the　language
  easily。”　Easily　is　the　adverb　telling　how　he　mastered　the　easy　parts　（Easy；　of　couse；　is　the
  adjective。）
  PREPOSITIONS
  Prepositions　are　words　that　precede　nouns　and　pronouns　to　form　phrases　（groups　of
  words）　that　can　act　as　adjectives　or　adverbs。　Prepositions　show　relationships　among
  nouns；　they　often　indicate　position　or　direction；　and　they　are　often　short　words：　to；　at；　by；
  for；　with；　from；　toward；　on；　over；　behind；　between；　etc。
  DEFINITE　ARTICLE
  The　definite　article　in　English　is　the　word　the。
  INDEFINITE　ARTICLE
  The　indefinite　article　in　English　is　the　word　a　or　an。　English　has　both　the　definite　and
  indefinite　article。　Some　other　languages　also　have　both。　Some　have　one　but　not　the　other。
  Some　have　neither。
  SUBJECT…VERB…OBJECT
  Words　like　these　symbolise　the　grade　school　“nerve　gas”　which　deadens　the　desire　to
  proceed　through　grammar　and　parts　of　speech；　and　diagramming　sentences；　and　all
  related　yawn　provokers　that　once　seemed　to　float　too　far　over　our　heads　ever　to　zoom
  down　and　give　us　discomfort。　Those　concepts　may　have　seemed　like　distant　enemies　in
  the　eighth　grade　when　you　had　no　intention　of　becoming　an　English　teacher；　but　they’re
  close　friends　and　necessary　allies　when　you’re　learning　another　language。
  Briefly；　in　the　sentence　“He　hits　the　ball；”　the　word　he　is　the　SUBJECT；　hits　is　the
  VERB；　ball　is　the　OBJECT；　the　DIRECT　OBJECT。　If　we　lengthen　the　sentence　to　“He　hits　the
  ball　to　him；”　then　him　is　the　INDIRECT　OBJECT。
  ACTIVE
  The　verb　is　ACTIVE　or　in　the　ACTIVE　VOICE　if　the　subject　is　performing　the　verb　action。　In
  “He　hits　the　ball；”　the　verb　hits　is　in　the　active　voice　because　the　subject　he　is　the　one
  （the　AGENT）　doing　the　hitting。
  PASSIVE
  The　verb　is　PASSIVE　or　in　the　PASSIVE　VOICE　if　the　subject　receives　or　is　subject　to　the
  action　of　the　verb。　Thus　in　“The　ball　is　hit　by　him”；　the　subject　ball　doesn’t　do　any
  hitting。　Rather；　it　gets　hit。　Therefore；　we　say　that　the　verb　hit　is　in　the　passive　voice
  because　the　subject　ball　is　not　performing　the　action　of　the　verb　but　is　rather　having　that
  action　performed　upon　it。
  REFLEXIVE
  The　verb　is　reflexive　when　its　action　bounces　back　upon　itself。　In　the　sentence　“I　dress
  myself；”　the　subject　I　both　performs　the　action　and　has　it　performed　on　itself。
  IMPERATIVE
  The　imperative　is　the　command　form　of　the　verb。　The　imperative　of　the　verb　to　go　is　go！
  The　imperative　of　the　verb　to　watch　is　Watch！
  COMPARATIVE　AND　SUPERLATIVE
  Though　not　as　flighty　and　volatile　as　verbs　and　nouns；　English　adjectives　and　adverbs
  can’t　sit　entirely　still。
  Good；　better；　and　best　are　really　the　same　word　in　escalating　degrees。　Good　is　the
  simple；　the　base　form　of　the　adjective。　Better　is　the　comparative　form。　Best　is　the
  superlative　form。　Good…better…best　is　an　example　of　an　irregular　comparative…superlative
  construction。　If　it　were　regular；　it　would　be　good；　gooder　and　goodest；　like　the　regular
  neat；　neater　and　neatest。
  The　comparative　and　superlative　of　adverbs　in　English　is　formed　with　more　and
  most：　“He　progressed　rapidly。　He　progressed　more　rapidly。　He　progressed　most　rapidly。”
  CARDINAL　AND　ORDINAL　NUMBERS
  Cardinal　numbers　are　one；　two；　three；　four；　etc。　Ordinal　numbers　are　first；　second；　third；
  fourth；　etc。
  FORMS　OF　ADDRESS
  English　is　deceptively　easy　in　forms　of　address。　Everybody　in　second　person　singular　and
  plural　is　you。　Your　spouse　is　you。　Your　four　year　old　child　is　you。　Your　interior　decorator
  is　you。　The　President　of　the　United　States　is　you。　Your　cocker　spaniel　is　you。　In　almost
  every　other　language；　speakers　differentiate；　sometimes　sharply；　between　the　FAMILIAR
  form　of　address　（French　tu；　German　du）　and　the　FORMAL　form　（French　vous；　German　Sie）。
  The　usual　rule　is　that　you　use　the　familiar　form　of　address　only　when　addressing　（talking
  to）　intimates；　children；　and　animals。　All　others　take　the　formal　form。
  There　comes　a　moment　in　the　affairs　of　humans　when　someone　who　started　out
  formally　as　a　stranger　or　casual　acquaintance　becomes；　with　time　and　congeniality；　so
  familiar　that　the　formal　form　of　address　seems　almost　stilted　and　even　offish　or　insulting。
  In　some　countries　–　Norway；　for　instance　–　the　tension　is　broken　by　the　suggestion　Skal
  vi　drikke　dus？　（“Shall　we　drink　to　a　new　era　in　our　friendship？”　one　in　which　we’ll
  address　each　other　as　the　familiar　du　rather　than　the　formal　De？）　That’s　a　speak…now…or…
  forever…hold…your…peace　moment　in　the　relationship。　If　there’s　no　objection；　the　two
  friends　take　a　glass　and　toast　their　graduation　from　formal　to　familiar　with　their　drinking
  arms　intertwined！
  DIMINUTIVES
  A　charming　trick　almost　every　language　has　is　this　“shrinking”　of　someone　or　something
  you　like　by　the　use　of　diminutives。　The　diminutive　of　Charles　is　Charlie。　The　diminutive
  of　William　is　Billy。　The　diminutive　of　star　is　starlet。　The　diminutive　of　pig　is　piglet　or
  piggy。　The　Olympics　of　diminutives　is　won　hands　down　by　the　Italians；　who　have
  literally　dozens　of　different　forms　of　the　diminutive；　each　conveying　its　own　special
  nuance　of　feeling　for　the　noun　undergoing　the　shrinking。
  IDIOMS
  Idioms　are　expressions　that　may　not　make　sense　but　have　clear　and　specific　meanings
  anyhow　because　the　speakers　of　the　language　have　“agreed”　that；　rules　notwithstanding；
  those　particular　words　shall　have　a　particular　meaning。　An　idiom　has　a　meaning　that
  cannot　be　derived　from　the　conjoined　meaning　of　its　elements。
  In　English；　we　say　“Let’s　take　a　walk！”　What　are　you　taking？　In　Spanish；　that
  becomes　“Damos　un　paseo；”　which　literally　means　“Let’s　give　a　walk！”　What　are　you
  giving？　Neither　makes　much　sense　but　both　are　correct。　Both　are　idioms。
  Some　English　idioms；　at　random；　are：　at　first　blush；　at　one’s　wits　end；　axe　to　grind；
  beat　around　the　bush；　break　the　ice；　chip　off　the　old　block；　crack　a　joke；　fit　as　a　fiddle；
  forty　winks；　get　in　one’s　hair；　give　a　piece　of　one’s　mind；　keep　the　wolf　from　the　door；　red
  tape；　and　with　flying　colours。
  All　languages　have　idioms。　They’re　fun　and　enriching　and　they　illustrate
  differences　and　similarities　among　cultures。　How　philosophically　distant　is　the
  Norwegian　who　says　about　a　dim　witted　person；　“Han　er　darlig　utstyrt　i　oeverst　etasje”
  （“He’s　poorly　equipped　on　the　top　floor”）；　from　the　American　Southerner　who　says；
  “He’s　three　pickles　shy　of　a　barrel”？
  Learn　to　diagnose　idioms　in　English　and　make　sure　you　never　try　to　translate　them
  literally　into　any　other　language。　If　you　try　to　tell　a　Spanish　friend；　“I’m　on　a　roll；”　do　not
  say　“Estoy　en　un　panecillo。”　He　will　look　under　your　feet　for　signs　of　crumbs　without
  any　comprehension　that　what　you　really　meant　to　express　is　that　things　are　going
  extremely　well　for　you　at　the　moment。
  Likewise；　be　attentive　to　idioms　as　they　come　at　you　in　other　languages。　The
  German　who　tells　you　to　“break　your　neck　and　your　leg”　is　really　wishing　you　luck。　So　is
  the　Italian　who　seems　to　be　sending　you　“into　the　mouth　of　the　wolf”！
  The　foregoing　is　by　no　means　the　whole　of　the　mechanical　vocabulary　you’ll　need
  to　conquer　every　other　language　on　earth。　You’ve　got　some　dandies　waiting　for　you
  inside　whatever　language　you　choose　to　tackle。　In　French　and　other　languages　you’ll
  meet　the　double　negative。　In　Finnish；　it’s　worse：　you’ll　meet　the　inflecting　negative！
  German　will　be　watching　to　see　if　you　can　handle　its　double　infinitive。　Russian　can’t　wait
  to　hit　you　with　its　perfective　and　imperfective　verb　aspects。　Gender　in　Hebrew　is　so
  complex　you　have　to　know　the　sex　of　a　dog　before　you　can