of　tolerance　took　hold　of　my　intolerant　self。　Later　I　discovered
  Anatole　France　and　my　first　experience　with　the　English
  language　came　about　through　an　accidental　encounter　with
  Thackeray's　‘‘Henry　Esmond；''　a　story　which　made　more　impression
  upon　me　than　any　other　book　in　the　English　language。
  If　I　had　been　born　in　a　pleasant　middle　western　city　I　probably
  should　have　a　certain　affection　for　the　hymns　which　I　had
  heard　in　my　childhood。　But　my　earliest　recollection　of　music
  goes　back　to　the　afternoon　when　my　Mother　took　me　to　hear
  nothing　less　than　a　Bach　fugue。　And　the　mathematical　perfection
  of　the　great　Protestant　master　influenced　me　to　such
  an　extent　that　I　cannot　hear　the　usual　hymns　of　our　prayer…
  meetings　without　a　feeling　of　intense　agony　and　direct　pain。
  Again；　if　I　had　been　born　in　Italy　and　had　been　warmed
  by　the　sunshine　of　the　happy　valley　of　the　Arno；　I　might　love
  many　colourful　and　sunny　pictures　which　now　leave　me　indifferent
  because　I　got　my　first　artistic　impressions　in　a　country
  where　the　rare　sun　beats　down　upon　the　rain…soaked　land　with
  almost　cruel　brutality　and　throws　everything　into　violent　contrasts
  of　dark　and　light。
  I　state　these　few　facts　deliberately　that　you　may　know
  the　personal　bias　of　the　man　who　wrote　this　history　and　may
  understand　his　point…of…view。　The　bibliography　at　the　end　of
  this　book；　which　represents　all　sorts　of　opinions　and　views；　will
  allow　you　to　compare　my　ideas　with　those　of　other　people。
  And　in　this　way；　you　will　be　able　to　reach　your　own　final
  conclusions　with　a　greater　degree　of　fairness　than　would
  otherwise　be　possible。
  After　this　short　but　necessary　excursion；　we　return　to　the
  history　of　the　last　fifty　years。　Many　things　happened　during
  this　period　but　very　little　occurred　which　at　the　time　seemed
  to　be　of　paramount　importance。　The　majority　of　the　greater
  powers　ceased　to　be　mere　political　agencies　and　became　large
  business　enterprises。　They　built　railroads。　They　founded　and
  subsidized　steam…ship　lines　to　all　parts　of　the　world。　They
  connected　their　different　possessions　with　telegraph　wires。
  And　they　steadily　increased　their　holdings　in　other　continents。
  Every　available　bit　of　African　or　Asiatic　territory　was　claimed
  by　one　of　the　rival　powers。　France　became　a　colonial　nation
  with　interests　in　Algiers　and　Madagascar　and　Annam　and
  Tonkin　（in　eastern　Asia）。　Germany　claimed　parts　of　southwest
  and　east　Africa；　built　settlements　in　Kameroon　on　the
  west　coast　of　Africa　and　in　New　Guinea　and　many　of　the
  islands　of　the　Pacific；　and　used　the　murder　of　a　few　missionaries
  as　a　welcome　excuse　to　take　the　harbour　of　Kisochau　on　the
  Yellow　Sea　in　China。　Italy　tried　her　luck　in　Abyssinia；　was
  disastrously　defeated　by　the　soldiers　of　the　Negus；　and　consoled
  herself　by　occupying　the　Turkish　possessions　in　Tripoli
  in　northern　Africa。　Russia；　having　occupied　all　of　Siberia；
  took　Port　Arthur　away　from　China。　Japan；　having　defeated
  China　in　the　war　of　1895；　occupied　the　island　of　Formosa　and
  in　the　year　1905　began　to　lay　claim　to　the　entire　empire　of
  Corea。　In　the　year　1883　England；　the　largest　colonial　empire
  the　world　has　ever　seen；　undertook　to　‘‘protect''　Egypt。　She
  performed　this　task　most　efficiently　and　to　the　great　material
  benefit　of　that　much　neglected　country；　which　ever　since　the
  opening　of　the　Suez　canal　in　1868　had　been　threatened　with　a
  foreign　invasion。　During　the　next　thirty　years　she　fought　a
  number　of　colonial　wars　in　different　parts　of　the　world　and　in
  1902　（after　three　years　of　bitter　fighting）　she　conquered　the
  independent　Boer　republics　of　the　Transvaal　and　the　Orange
  Free　State。　Meanwhile　she　had　encouraged　Cecil　Rhodes　to
  lay　the　foundations　for　a　great　African　state；　which　reached
  from　the　Cape　almost　to　the　mouth　of　the　Nile；　and　had　faithfully
  picked　up　such　islands　or　provinces　as　had　been　left　without
  a　European　owner。
  The　shrewd　king　of　Belgium；　by　name　Leopold；　used
  the　discoveries　of　Henry　Stanley　to　found　the　Congo　Free
  State　in　the　year　1885。　Originally　this　gigantic　tropical　empire
  was　an　‘‘absolute　monarchy。''　But　after　many　years　of
  scandalous　mismanagement；　it　was　annexed　by　the　Belgian
  people　who　made　it　a　colony　（in　the　year　1908）　and　abolished
  the　terrible　abuses　which　had　been　tolerated　by　this　very
  unscrupulous　Majesty；　who　cared　nothing　for　the　fate　of　the
  natives　as　long　as　he　got　his　ivory　and　rubber。
  As　for　the　United　States；　they　had　so　much　land　that　they
  desired　no　further　territory。　But　the　terrible　misrule　of
  Cuba；　one　of　the　last　of　the　Spanish　possessions　in　the　western
  hemisphere；　practically　forced　the　Washington　government　to
  take　action。　After　a　short　and　rather　uneventful　war；　the
  Spaniards　were　driven　out　of　Cuba　and　Puerto　Rico　and　the
  Philippines；　and　the　two　latter　became　colonies　of　the　United
  States。
  This　economic　development　of　the　world　was　perfectly
  natural。　The　increasing　number　of　factories　in　England　and
  France　and　Germany　needed　an　ever　increasing　amount　of　raw
  materials　and　the　equally　increasing　number　of　European
  workers　needed　an　ever　increasing　amount　of　food。　Everywhere
  the　cry　was　for　more　and　for　richer　markets；　for　more
  easily　accessible　coal　mines　and　iron　mines　and　rubber　plantations
  and　oil…wells；　for　greater　supplies　of　wheat　and　grain。
  The　purely　political　events　of　the　European　continent
  dwindled　to　mere　insignificance　in　the　eyes　of　men　who　were
  making　plans　for　steamboat　lines　on　Victoria　Nyanza　or
  for　railroads　through　the　interior　of　Shantung。　They　knew
  that　many　European　questions　still　remained　to　be　settled；　but
  they　did　not　bother；　and　through　sheer　indifference　and　carelessness
  they　bestowed　upon　their　descendants　a　terrible　inheritance
  of　hate　and　misery。　For　untold　centuries　the　south…eastern
  corner　of　Europe　had　been　the　scene　of　rebellion　and　bloodshed。
  During　the　seventies　of　the　last　century　the　people　of
  Serbia　and　Bulgaria　and　Montenegro　and　Roumania　were　once
  more　trying　to　gain　their　freedom　and　the　Turks　（with　the
  support　of　many　of　the　western　powers）；　were　trying　to　prevent
  this。
  After　a　period　of　particularly　atrocious　massacres　in　Bulgaria
  in　the　year　1876；　the　Russian　people　lost　all　patience。
  The　Government　was　forced　to　intervene　just　as　President　McKinley
  was　obliged　to　go　to　Cuba　and　stop　the　shooting…squads
  of　General　Weyler　in　Havana。　In　April　of　the　year　1877　the
  Russian　armies　crossed　the　Danube；　stormed　the　Shipka　pass；
  and　after　the　capture　of　Plevna；　marched　southward　until　they
  reached　the　gates　of　Constantinople。　Turkey　appealed　for
  help　to　England。　There　were　many　English　people　who　denounced
  their　government　when　it　took　the　side　of　the　Sultan。
  But　Disraeli　（who　had　just　made　Queen　Victoria　Empress　of
  India　and　who　loved　the　picturesque　Turks　while　he　hated　the
  Russians　who　were　brutally　cruel　to　the　Jewish　people　within
  their　frontiers）　decided　to　interfere。　Russia　was　forced　to
  conclude　the　peace　of　San　Stefano　（1878）　and　the　question　of
  the　Balkans　was　left　to　a　Congress　which　convened　at　Berlin
  in　June　and　July　of　the　same　year。
  This　famous　conference　was　entirely　dominated　by　the　personality
  of　Disraeli。　Even　Bismarck　feared　the　clever　old
  man　with　his　well…oiled　curly　hair　and　his　supreme　arrogance；
  tempered　by　a　cynical　sense　of　humor　and　a　marvellous　gift
  for　flattery。　At　Berlin　the　British　prime…minister　carefully
  watched　over　the　fate　of　his　friends　the　Turks。　Montenegro；
  Serbia　and　Roumania　were　recognised　as　independent　kingdoms。
  The　principality　of　Bulgaria　was　given　a　semi…independent
  status　under　Prince　Alexander　of　Battenberg；　a
  nephew　of　Tsar　Alexander　II。　But　none　of　those　countries
  were　given　the　chance　to　develop　their　powers　and　their　resources
  as　they　would　have　been　able　to　do；　had　England　been
  less　anxious　about　the　fate　of　the　Sultan；　whose　domains　were
  necessary　to　the　safety　of　the　British　Empire　as　a　bulwark
  against　further　Russian　aggression。
  To　make　matters　worse；　the　congress　allowed　Austria　to
  take　Bosnia　and　Herzegovina　away　from　the　Turks　to　be
  ‘‘administered''　as　part　of　the　Habsburg　domains。　It　is　true
  that　Austria　made　an　excellent　job　of　it。　The　neglected　provinces
  were　as　well　managed　as　the　best　of　the　British　colonies；
  and　that　is　saying　a　great　deal。　But　they　were　inhabited　by
  many　Serbians。　In　older　days　they　had　been　part　of　the　great
  Serbian　empire　of　Stephan　Dushan；　who　early　in　the　fourteenth
  century　had　defended　western　Europe　against　the　invasions
  of　the　Turks　and　whose　capital　of　Uskub　had　been　a
  centre　of　civilisation　one　hundred　and　fifty　years　before　Columbus
  discovered　the　new　lands　of　the　west。　The　Serbians　remem…
  bered　their　ancient　glory　as　who　would　not？　They　resented
  the　presence　of　the　Austrians　in　two　provinces；　which；　so　they
  felt；　were　theirs　by　every　right　of　tradition。
  And　it　was　in　Sarajevo；　the　capital　of　Bosnia；　tha