wonderfully　interesting　a　history…book　can　be；）　organised　a
  society　for　the　suppression　of　slavery。　First　of　all　they　got　a
  law　passed　which　made　‘‘slave　trading''　illegal。　And　after　the
  year　1840　there　was　not　a　single　slave　in　any　of　the　British
  colonies。　The　revolution　of　1848　put　an　end　to　slavery　in　the
  French　possessions。　The　Portuguese　passed　a　law　in　the　year
  1858　which　promised　all　slaves　their　liberty　in　twenty　years
  from　date。　The　Dutch　abolished　slavery　in　1863　and　in　the
  same　year　Tsar　Alexander　II　returned　to　his　serfs　that　liberty
  which　had　been　taken　away　from　them　more　than　two　centuries
  before。
  In　the　United　States　of　America　the　question　led　to　grave
  difficulties　and　a　prolonged　war。　Although　the　Declaration
  of　Independence　had　laid　down　the　principle　that　‘‘all　men
  were　created　free　and　equal；''　an　exception　had　been　made　for
  those　men　and　women　whose　skins　were　dark　and　who　worked
  on　the　plantations　of　the　southern　states。　As　time　went　on；　the
  dislike　of　the　people　of　the　North　for　the　institution　of　slavery
  increased　and　they　made　no　secret　of　their　feelings。　The　southerners
  however　claimed　that　they　could　not　grow　their　cotton
  without　slave…labour；　and　for　almost　fifty　years　a　mighty　debate
  raged　in　both　the　Congress　and　the　Senate。
  The　North　remained　obdurate　and　the　South　would　not　give
  in。　When　it　appeared　impossible　to　reach　a　compromise；　the
  southern　states　threatened　to　leave　the　Union。　It　was　a　most
  dangerous　point　in　the　history　of　the　Union。　Many　things
  ‘‘might''　have　happened。　That　they　did　not　happen　was　the
  work　of　a　very　great　and　very　good　man。
  On　the　sixth　of　November　of　the　year　1860；　Abraham　Lincoln；
  an　Illinois　lawyer；　and　a　man　who　had　made　his　own　intellectual
  fortune；　had　been　elected　president　by　the　Republicans
  who　were　very　strong　in　the　anti…slavery　states。　He
  knew　the　evils　of　human　bondage　at　first　hand　and　his　shrewd
  common…sense　told　him　that　there　was　no　room　on　the　northern
  continent　for　two　rival　nations。　When　a　number　of　southern
  states　seceded　and　formed　the　‘‘Confederate　States　of　America；''
  Lincoln　accepted　the　challenge。　The　Northern　states
  were　called　upon　for　volunteers。　Hundreds　of　thousands　of
  young　men　responded　with　eager　enthusiasm　and　there　followed
  four　years　of　bitter　civil　war。　The　South；　better　prepared
  and　following　the　brilliant　leadership　of　Lee　and　Jackson；
  repeatedly　defeated　the　armies　of　the　North。　Then　the
  economic　strength　of　New　England　and　the　West　began　to
  tell。　An　unknown　officer　by　the　name　of　Grant　arose　from　obscurity
  and　became　the　Charles　Martel　of　the　great　slave　war。
  Without　interruption　he　hammered　his　mighty　blows　upon　the
  crumbling　defences　of　the　South。　Early　in　the　year　1863；
  President　Lincoln　issued　his　‘‘Emancipation　Proclamation''
  which　set　all　slaves　free。　In　April　of　the　year　1865　Lee
  surrendered　the　last　of　his　brave　armies　at　Appomattox。　A　few
  days　later；　President　Lincoln　was　murdered　by　a　lunatic。　But
  his　work　was　done。　With　the　exception　of　Cuba　which　was
  still　under　Spanish　domination；　slavery　had　come　to　an　end　in
  every　part　of　the　civilised　world。
  But　while　the　black　man　was　enjoying　an　increasing　amount
  of　liberty；　the　‘‘free''　workmen　of　Europe　did　not　fare　quite　so
  well。　Indeed；　it　is　a　matter　of　surprise　to　many　contemporary
  writers　and　observers　that　the　masses　of　workmen　（the　so…
  called　proletariat）　did　not　die　out　from　sheer　misery。　They
  lived　in　dirty　houses　situated　in　miserable　parts　of　the　slums。
  They　ate　bad　food。　They　received　just　enough　schooling　to
  fit　them　for　their　tasks。　In　case　of　death　or　an　accident；　their
  families　were　not　provided　for。　But　the　brewery　and　distillery
  interests；　（who　could　exercise　great　influence　upon　the　Legislature；）
  encouraged　them　to　forget　their　woes　by　offering　them
  unlimited　quantities　of　whisky　and　gin　at　very　cheap　rates。
  The　enormous　improvement　which　has　taken　place　since　the
  thirties　and　the　forties　of　the　last　century　is　not　due　to　the　efforts
  of　a　single　man。　The　best　brains　of　two　generations　devoted
  themselves　to　the　task　of　saving　the　world　from　the　disastrous
  results　of　the　all…too…sudden　introduction　of　machinery。
  They　did　not　try　to　destroy　the　capitalistic　system。　This　would
  have　been　very　foolish；　for　the　accumulated　wealth　of　other
  people；　when　intelligently　used；　may　be　of　very　great　benefit
  to　all　mankind。　But　they　tried　to　combat　the　notion　that　true
  equality　can　exist　between　the　man　who　has　wealth　and　owns
  the　factories　and　can　close　their　doors　at　will　without　the　risk
  of　going　hungry；　and　the　labourer　who　must　take　whatever　job
  is　offered；　at　whatever　wage　he　can　get；　or　face　the　risk　of
  starvation　for　himself；　his　wife　and　his　children。
  They　endeavoured　to　introduce　a　number　of　laws　which　regulated
  the　relations　between　the　factory　owners　and　the　factory
  workers。　In　this；　the　reformers　have　been　increasingly
  successful　in　all　countries。　To…day；　the　majority　of　the　labourers
  are　well　protected；　their　hours　are　being　reduced　to　the
  excellent　average　of　eight；　and　their　children　are　sent　to　the
  schools　instead　of　to　the　mine　pit　and　to　the　carding…room　of
  the　cotton　mills。
  But　there　were　other　men　who　also　contemplated　the　sight
  of　all　the　belching　smoke…stacks；　who　heard　the　rattle　of　the
  railroad　trains；　who　saw　the　store…houses　filled　with　a　surplus
  of　all　sorts　of　materials；　and　who　wondered　to　what　ultimate
  goal　this　tremendous　activity　would　lead　in　the　years　to　come。
  They　remembered　that　the　human　race　had　lived　for　hundreds
  of　thousands　of　years　without　commercial　and　industrial　competition。
  Could　they　change　the　existing　order　of　things　and
  do　away　with　a　system　of　rivalry　which　so　often　sacrificed　human
  happiness　to　profits？
  This　ideathis　vague　hope　for　a　better　daywas　not　restricted
  to　a　single　country。　In　England；　Robert　Owen；　the
  owner　of　many　cotton　mills；　established　a　so…called　‘‘socialistic
  community''　which　was　a　success。　But　when　he　died；　the　prosperity
  of　New　Lanark　came　to　an　end　and　an　attempt　of　Louis
  Blanc；　a　French　journalist；　to　establish　‘‘social　workshops''
  all　over　France　fared　no　better。　Indeed；　the　increasing　number
  of　socialistic　writers　soon　began　to　see　that　little　individual
  communities　which　remained　outside　of　the　regular　industrial
  life；　would　never　be　able　to　accomplish　anything　at　all。　It
  was　necessary　to　study　the　fundamental　principles　underlying
  the　whole　industrial　and　capitalistic　society　before　useful　remedies
  could　be　suggested。
  The　practical　socialists　like　Robert　Owen　and　Louis
  Blanc　and　Francois　Fournier　were　succeeded　by　theoretical
  students　of　socialism　like　Karl　Marx　and　Friedrich　Engels。　Of
  these　two；　Marx　is　the　best　known。　He　was　a　very　brilliant
  Jew　whose　family　had　for　a　long　time　lived　in　Germany。　He
  had　heard　of　the　experiments　of　Owen　and　Blanc　and　he　began
  to　interest　himself　in　questions　of　labour　and　wages　and
  unemployment。　But　his　liberal　views　made　him　very　unpopular
  with　the　police　authorities　of　Germany；　and　he　was　forced　to
  flee　to　Brussels　and　then　to　London；　where　he　lived　a　poor　and
  shabby　life　as　the　correspondent　of　the　New　York　Tribune。
  No　one；　thus　far；　had　paid　much　attention　to　his　books　on
  economic　subjects。　But　in　the　year　1864　he　organised　the　first
  international　association　of　working　men　and　three　years　later
  in　1867；　he　published　the　first　volume　of　his　well…known　trea…
  tise　called　‘‘Capital。''　Marx　believed　that　all　history　was　a
  long　struggle　between　those　who　‘‘have''　and　those　who　‘‘don't
  have。''　The　introduction　and　general　use　of　machinery　had
  created　a　new　class　in　society；　that　of　the　capitalists　who　used
  their　surplus　wealth　to　buy　the　tools　which　were　then　used　by
  the　labourers　to　produce　still　more　wealth；　which　was　again　used
  to　build　more　factories　and　so　on；　until　the　end　of　time。　Meanwhile；
  according　to　Marx；　the　third　estate　（the　bourgeoisie）
  was　growing　richer　and　richer　and　the　fourth　estate　（the　proletariat）
  was　growing　poorer　and　poorer；　and　he　predicted　that
  in　the　end；　one　man　would　possess　all　the　wealth　of　the　world
  while　the　others　would　be　his　employees　and　dependent　upon
  his　good　will。
  To　prevent　such　a　state　of　affairs；　Marx　advised　working
  men　of　all　countries　to　unite　and　to　fight　for　a　number　of　political
  and　economic　measures　which　he　had　enumerated　in　a　Manifesto
  in　the　year　1848；　the　year　of　the　last　great　European
  revolution。
  These　views　of　course　were　very　unpopular　with　the　governments
  of　Europe；　many　countries；　especially　Prussia；　passed
  severe　laws　against　the　Socialists　and　policemen　were　ordered
  to　break　up　the　Socialist　meetings　and　to　arrest　the　speakers。
  But　that　sort　of　persecution　never　does　any　good。　Martyrs
  are　the　best　possible　advertisements　for　an　unpopular　cause。
  In　Europe　the　number　of　socialists　steadily　increased　and　it
  was　soon　clear