their　members　the　hours　during　which　they　could　work　and
  the　wages　which　they　must　demand。　The　workman　must　at
  all　times；　be　‘‘free　to　sell　his　services　in　the　open　market；''　and
  the　employer　must　be　equally　‘‘free''　to　conduct　his　business
  as　he　saw　fit。　The　days　of　the　Mercantile　System；　when
  the　state　had　regulated　the　industrial　life　of　the　entire
  community；　were　coming　to　an　end。　The　new　idea　of　‘‘freedom''
  insisted　that　the　state　stand　entirely　aside　and　let　commerce
  take　its　course。
  The　last　half　of　the　18th　century　had　not　merely　been　a
  time　of　intellectual　and　political　doubt；　but　the　old　economic
  ideas；　too；　had　been　replaced　by　new　ones　which　better　suited　the
  need　of　the　hour。　Several　years　before　the　French　revolution；
  Turgot；　who　had　been　one　of　the　unsuccessful　ministers　of
  finance　of　Louis　XVI；　had　preached　the　novel　doctrine　of
  ‘‘economic　liberty。''　Turgot　lived　in　a　country　which　had
  suffered　from　too　much　red…tape；　too　many　regulations；　too
  many　officials　trying　to　enforce　too　many　laws。　‘‘Remove　this
  official　supervision；''　he　wrote；　‘‘let　the　people　do　as　they　please；
  and　everything　will　be　all　right。''　Soon　his　famous　advice　of
  ‘‘laissez　faire''　became　the　battle…cry　around　which　the　economists
  of　that　period　rallied；
  At　the　same　time　in　England；　Adam　Smith　was　working
  on　his　mighty　volumes　on　the　‘‘Wealth　of　Nations；''　which　made
  another　plea　for　‘‘liberty''　and　the　‘‘natural　rights　of　trade。''
  Thirty　years　later；　after　the　fall　of　Napoleon；　when　the　reactionary
  powers　of　Europe　had　gained　their　victory　at　Vienna；
  that　same　freedom　which　was　denied　to　the　people　in　their
  political　relations　was　forced　upon　them　in　their　industrial
  life。
  The　general　use　of　machinery；　as　I　have　said　at　the　beginning
  of　this　chapter；　proved　to　be　of　great　advantage　to　the
  state。　Wealth　increased　rapidly。　The　machine　made　it　possible
  for　a　single　country；　like　England；　to　carry　all　the　burdens
  of　the　great　Napoleonic　wars。　The　capitalists　（the　people
  who　provided　the　money　with　which　machines　were　bought）
  reaped　enormous　profits。　They　became　ambitious　and　began
  to　take　an　interest　in　politics。　They　tried　to　compete　with　the
  landed　aristocracy　which　still　exercised　great　influence　upon
  the　government　of　most　European　countries。
  In　England；　where　the　members　of　Parliament　were　still
  elected　according　to　a　Royal　Decree　of　the　year　1265；　and
  where　a　large　number　of　recently　created　industrial　centres　were
  without　representation；　they　brought　about　the　passing　of　the
  Reform　Bill　of　the　year　1882；　which　changed　the　electoral
  system　and　gave　the　class　of　the　factory…owners　more　influence
  upon　the　legislative　body。　This　however　caused　great
  discontent　among　the　millions　of　factory　workers；　who　were
  left　without　any　voice　in　the　government。　They　too　began
  an　agitation　for　the　right　to　vote。　They　put　their　demands
  down　in　a　document　which　came　to　be　known　as　the　‘‘People's
  Charter。''　The　debates　about　this　charter　grew　more　and
  more　violent。　They　had　not　yet　come　to　an　end　when　the　revolutions
  of　the　year　1848　broke　out。　Frightened　by　the　threat
  of　a　new　outbreak　or　Jacobinism　and　violence；　the　English
  government　placed　the　Duke　of　Wellington；　who　was　now　in
  his　eightieth　year；　at　the　head　of　the　army；　and　called　for
  Volunteers。　London　was　placed　in　a　state　of　siege　and
  preparations　were　made　to　suppress　the　coming　revolution。
  But　the　Chartist　movement　killed　itself　through　bad　leadership
  and　no　acts　of　violence　took　place。　The　new　class　of
  wealthy　factory　owners；　（I　dislike　the　word　‘‘bourgeoisie''
  which　has　been　used　to　death　by　the　apostles　of　a　new　social
  order；）　slowly　increased　its　hold　upon　the　government；　and
  the　conditions　of　industrial　life　in　the　large　cities　continued　to
  transform　vast　acres　of　pasture　and　wheat…land　into　dreary
  slums；　which　guard　the　approach　of　every　modern　European
  town。
  EMANCIPATION
  THE　GENERAL　INTRODUCTION　OF　MACHINERY
  DID　NOT　BRING　ABOUT　THE　ERA　OF
  HAPPINESS　AND　PROSPERITY　WHICH
  HAD　BEEN　PREDICTED　BY　THE　GENERATION
  WHICH　SAW　THE　STAGE　COACH　REPLACED
  BY　THE　RAILROAD。　SEVERAL
  REMEDIES　WERE　SUGGESTED　BUT　NONE
  OF　THESE　QUITE　SOLVED　THE　PROBLEM
  IN　the　year　1831；　just　before　the　passing　of　the　first　Reform
  Bill　Jeremy　Bentham；　the　great　English　student　of　legislative
  methods　and　the　most　practical　political　reformer　of　that
  day；　wrote　to　a　friend：　‘‘The　way　to　be　comfortable　is　to
  make　others　comfortable。　The　way　to　make　others　comfortable
  is　to　appear　to　love　them。　The　way　to　appear　to　love　them
  is　to　love　them　in　reality。''　Jeremy　was　an　honest　man。　He
  said　what　he　believed　to　be　true。　His　opinions　were　shared　by
  thousands　of　his　countrymen。　They　felt　responsible　for　the
  happiness　of　their　less　fortunate　neighbours　and　they　tried
  their　very　best　to　help　them。　And　Heaven　knows　it　was　time
  that　something　be　done！
  The　ideal　of　‘‘economic　freedom''　（the　‘‘laissez　faire''　of
  Turgot）　had　been　necessary　in　the　old　society　where　mediaeval
  restrictions　lamed　all　industrial　effort。　But　this　‘‘liberty　of
  action''　which　had　been　the　highest　law　of　the　land　had　led　to
  a　terrible；　yea；　a　frightful　condition。　The　hours　in　the　fac…
  tory　were　limited　only　by　the　physical　strength　of　the　workers。
  As　long　as　a　woman　could　sit　before　her　loom；　without
  fainting　from　fatigue；　she　was　supposed　to　work。　Children　of
  five　and　six　were　taken　to　the　cotton　mills；　to　save　them　from
  the　dangers　of　the　street　and　a　life　of　idleness。　A　law　had
  been　passed　which　forced　the　children　of　paupers　to　go　to　work
  or　be　punished　by　being　chained　to　their　machines。　In　return
  for　their　services　they　got　enough　bad　food　to　keep　them　alive
  and　a　sort　of　pigsty　in　which　they　could　rest　at　night。　Often
  they　were　so　tired　that　they　fell　asleep　at　their　job。　To　keep
  them　awake　a　foreman　with　a　whip　made　the　rounds　and　beat
  them　on　the　knuckles　when　it　was　necessary　to　bring　them　back
  to　their　duties。　Of　course；　under　these　circumstances　thousands
  of　little　children　died。　This　was　regrettable　and　the　employers；
  who　after　all　were　human　beings　and　not　without　a　heart；　sincerely
  wished　that　they　could　abolish　‘‘child　labour。''　But　since
  man　was　‘‘free''　it　followed　that　children　were　‘‘free''　too。
  Besides；　if　Mr。　Jones　had　tried　to　work　his　factory　without　the
  use　of　children　of　five　and　six；　his　rival；　Mr。　Stone；　would　have
  hired　an　extra　supply　of　little　boys　and　Jones　would　have　been
  forced　into　bankruptcy。　It　was　therefore　impossible　for　Jones
  to　do　without　child　labour　until　such　time　as　an　act　of　Parliament
  should　forbid　it　for　all　employers。
  But　as　Parliament　was　no　longer　dominated　by　the　old
  landed　aristocracy　（which　had　despised　the　upstart　factory…
  owners　with　their　money　bags　and　had　treated　them　with　open
  contempt）；　but　was　under　control　of　the　representatives　from
  the　industrial　centres；　and　as　long　as　the　law　did　not　allow
  workmen　to　combine　in　labour…unions；　very　little　was　accomplished。
  Of　course　the　intelligent　and　decent　people　of　that
  time　were　not　blind　to　these　terrible　conditions。　They　were
  just　helpless。　Machinery　had　conquered　the　world　by　surprise
  and　it　took　a　great　many　years　and　the　efforts　of　thousands
  of　noble　men　and　women　to　make　the　machine　what　it
  ought　to　be；　man's　servant；　and　not　his　master。
  Curiously　enough；　the　first　attack　upon　the　outrageous
  system　of　employment　which　was　then　common　in　all　parts　of
  the　world；　was　made　on　behalf　of　the　black　slaves　of　Africa
  and　America。　Slavery　had　been　introduced　into　the　American
  continent　by　the　Spaniards。　They　had　tried　to　use　the
  Indians　as　labourers　in　the　fields　and　in　the　mines；　but　the
  Indians；　when　taken　away　from　a　life　in　the　open；　had　lain　down
  and　died　and　to　save　them　from　extinction　a　kind…hearted　priest
  had　suggested　that　negroes　be　brought　from　Africa　to　do　the
  work。　The　negroes　were　strong　and　could　stand　rough　treatment。
  Besides；　association　with　the　white　man　would　give
  them　a　chance　to　learn　Christianity　and　in　this　way；　they　would
  be　able　to　save　their　souls；　and　so　from　every　possible　point　of
  view；　it　would　be　an　excellent　arrangement　both　for　the　kindly
  white　man　and　for　his　ignorant　black　brother。　But　with　the
  introduction　of　machinery　there　had　been　a　greater　demand　for
  cotton　and　the　negroes　were　forced　to　work　harder　than　ever
  before；　and　they　too；　like　the　Indians；　began　to　die　under　the
  treatment　which　they　received　at　the　hands　of　the　overseers。
  Stories　of　incredible　cruelty　constantly　found　their　way　to
  Europe　and　in　all　countries　men　and　women　began　to　agitate
  for　the　abolition　of　slavery。　In　England；　William　Wilberforce
  and　Zachary　Macaulay；　（the　father　of　the　great　historian　whose
  history　of　England　you　must　read　if　you　want　to　know　how
  wonderfully　interesting　a　history…book　can　be；）　organised　a
  society　for　the　suppression　of　slavery。　First